unhappy persons whom the neglect of the world would have abandoned to the miseries of want, of sickness, and of old age. There is some reason likewise to believe, that great numbers of infants, who, according to the inhuman practice of the times, had been exposed by their parents, were frequently rescued from death, baptized, educated, and maintained, by the piety of the Christians, and at the expense of the public treasure.14

II. It is the undoubted right of every society Excommuni- to exclude from its communion and benefits such cation. among its members as reject or violate those regulations which have been established by general consent. In the exercise of this power the censures of the Christian church were chiefly directed against scandalous sinners, and particularly those who were guilty of murder, of fraud, or of incontinence; against the authors, or the followers of any heretical opinions which had been condemned by the judgment of the episcopal order; and against those unhappy persons, who, whether from choice or from compulsion, had polluted themselves, after their baptism, by an act of idolatrous worship. The consequences of excommunication were of a temporarl, as well as a spiritual, nature. The Christian

against whom it was pronounced was deprived of any part in the oblations of the faithful; the ties both of religious and of private friendship were dissolved; he found himself a profane object of abhorrence to the persons whom he most esteemed, or by whom he had been the most tenderly beloved; and as far as an expulsion from a respectable society could imprint on his character a mark of disgrace, he was shunned or suspected by the generality of mankind. The situation of these unfortunate exiles was in itself very painful and melancholy; but, as it usually happens, their apprehensions far exceeded their sufferings. The benefits of the Christian communion were those of eternal life, nor could they erase from their minds the awful opinion, that to those ecclesiastical governors by whom they were condemned, the Deity had committed the keys of hell and of paradise. The heretics, indeed, who might be supported by the consciousness of their intentions, and by the flattering hope that they alone had discovered the true path of salvation, endeavored to regain, in their separate assemblies,

144 Such, at least, has been the laudable conduct of more modern missionaries, under the same circumstances. Above three thousand new-born infants are annually exposed in the streets of Pekin. See Le Comte, Mémoires sur la Chine, and the Recherches sur les Chinois et les Egyptiens, tom. i. p. 61.

those comforts, temporal as well as spiritual, which they no longer derived from the great society of Christians. But almost all those who had reluctantly yielded to the power of vice or idolatry were sensible of their fallen condition, and anxiously desirous of being restored to the benefits of the Christian communion.

With regard to the treatment of these penitents, two opposite opinions, the one of justice, the other of mercy, divided the primitive church. The more rigid and inflexible casuists refused them forever, and without exception, the meanest place in the holy community which they had disgraced or deserted; and leaving them to the remorse of a guilty conscience, indulged them only with a faint ray of hope that the contrition of their life and death might possibly be accepted by the Supreme Being. A milder sentiment was embraced, in practice as well as in theory, by the purest and most respectable of the Christian churches.146 The gates of

145

Public

penance.

reconciliation and of heaven were seldom shut against the returning penitent; but a severe and solemn form of discipline was instituted, which, while it served to expiate his crime, might powerfully deter the spectators from the imitation of his example. Humbled by a public confession, emaciated by fasting, and clothed in sackcloth, the penitent lay prostrate at the door of the assembly, imploring with tears the pardon of his offences, and soliciting the prayers of the faithful." If the fault was of a very heinous nature, whole years of penance were esteemed an inadequate satisfaction to the divine justice; and it was always by slow and painful gradations that the sinner, the heretic, or the apostate, was readmitted into the bosom of the church. A sentence of perpetual excommunication was, however, reserved for some crimes of an extraordinary magnitude, and particularly for the inexcusable relapses of those penitents who had already experienced and abused the clemency of their ecclesiastical superiors. According to the circumstances or the number of the guilty, the exercise of the Christian discipline was varied by the discretion of the bishops. The councils of Ancyra and Illiberis were held about the same time, the one in Galatia,

145 The Montanists and the Novatians, who adhered to this opinion with the greatest rigor and obstinacy, found themselves at last in the number of excommunicated heretics. See the learned and copious Mosheim, Secul. ii. and iii. 146 Dionysius ap. Euseb. iv. 23. Cyprian, de Lapsis.

147 Cave's Primitive Christianity, part iii. c. 5. The admirers of antiquity regret the loss of this public penance.

the other in Spain; but their respective canons, which are still extant, seem to breathe a very different spirit. The Galatian, who after his baptism had repeatedly sacrificed to idols, might obtain his pardon by a penance of seven years; and if he had seduced others to imitate his example, only three years more were added to the term of his exile. But the unhappy Spaniard who had committed the same offence was deprived of the hope of reconciliation, even in the article of death; and his idolatry was placed at the head of a list of seventeen other crimes, against which a sentence no less terrible was pronounced. Among these we may distinguish the inexpiable guilt of calumniating a bishop, a presbyter, or even a deacon.'

of episcopal

148

The well-tempered mixture of liberality and The dignity rigor, the judicious dispensation of rewards and government. punishments, according to the maxims of policy as well as justice, constituted the human strength of the church. The bishops, whose paternal care extended itself to the government of both worlds, were sensible of the importance of these prerogatives; and, covering their ambition with the fair pretence of the love of order, they were jealous of any rival in the exercise of a discipline so necessary to prevent the desertion of those troops which had enlisted themselves under the banner of the cross, and whose numbers every day became more considerable. From the imperious declamations of Cyprian we should naturally conclude that the doctrines of excommunication and penance formed the most essential part of religion;*

118 See in Dupin, Bibliothèque Ecclesiastique, tom. ii. pp. 304-313, a short but rational exposition of the canons of those councils, which were assembled in the first moments of tranquillity after the persecution of Diocletian. This persecution had been much less severely felt in Spain than in Galatia; a difference which may, in some measure, account for the contrast of their regulations.

46

*"St. Cyprian, (Thascius Cæcilius Cyprianus,) Bishop of Carthage," says the Rev. Robert Taylor, in The Diegesis, p. 343, "was an African, who was converted "from Paganism to Christianity, in the year 246, and suffered martyrdom in the year 258. So that the greatest part of his life was spent in heathenism. Cyprian had a good estate, which he sold and gave to the poor immediately upon his conversion. His advancement to the highest offices of the church was strikingly "rapid; he was made presbyter the year after his conversion, and bishop of Car"thage, the year after that. And let it not seem invidious to state, what may be "a characteristic truth, in the words of Dr. Lardner himself, The estate which "Cyprian had sold for the benefit of the poor, was by some favorable providence "restored to him again.' He was bishop of a most flourishing church, the "metropolis of a province, and neither in fame nor fortune a loser by his conversion. Cyprian had rendered himself obnoxious to the government under which "he had long enjoyed his episcopal dignity in peace and safety. [The constitu"tion of every particular church in those times was a well-tempered monarchy. "The bishop was the monarch, and the presbytery was his senate.'**'Cyprian "carried his spiritual authority to such a pitch, as to claim the right of putting ""his rebellious and unruly deacon to death.'-Principles of the Cyprianic age, by

and that it was much less dangerous for the disciples of Christ to neglect the observance of the moral duties, than to despise the censures and authority of their bishops. Sometimes we might imagine that we were listening to the voice of Moses, when he commanded the earth to open, and to swallow up, in consuming flames, the rebellious race which refused obedience to the priesthood of Aaron; and we should sometimes suppose that we heard a Roman consul asserting the majesty of the republic, and declaring his inflexible resolution to enforce the rigor of the laws.* "If such irregularities are suffered with impunity" (it is thus that the bishop of Carthage chides the lenity of his colleague), "If such irregularities are suffered, there is an end of EPISCOPAL VIGOR;' 149 an end of the sublime and divine power of governing the Church, an end of Christianity itself." Cyprian had renounced those temporal honors which it is probable he would never have obtained; but the acquisition of such absolute command over the consciences and understanding of a congregation, however obscure or 149 Cyprian. Epist. 69.

44

46

“John Sage, a Scottish bishop, 1695, pp. 32, 33.] And it is impossible not to see "from the intolerant turbulence of his character, his restless ambition, and his "inordinate claims of more than human authority; that more than human patience "would have been required on the part of any government on earth, to have "brooked the eternal clashings of the civil administration with his assumed superior authority over the minds of the subjects of the empire. He had been twice banished, and subsequently recalled, and reinstated in his possessions and dignities, but again and again persisting in holding councils and assemblies, "and enacting decrees, in defiance and actual solicitation of martyrdom, he was "judicially sentenced to be beheaded, upon which, he exclaimed, God be thanked, "and suffered accordingly, on the 14th of September, in the year 258. It is need"less,' says St. Jerom, to give a catalogue of his works, they are brighter than "the sun. St. Austin calls him a blessed martyr, and there can be no doubt that "he has as good a claim, as any other tyrant who ever expiated his tyranny in "the same way, to that title." - E.

* Gibbon has been accused of injustice to the character of Cyprian, as exalting the "censures and authority of the church above the observance of the moral "duties." Felicissimus had been condemned by a synod of bishops (non tantum mea, sed plurimorum coepiscorum, sententia condemnatum), on the charge not only of schism, but of embezzlement of public money, the debauching of virgins, and frequent acts of adultery. His violent menaces had extorted his readmission into the church, against which Cyprian protests with much vehemence: ne pecuniæ commissæ sibi fraudator, ne stuprator virginum, ne matrimoniorum multorum depopulator et corruptor, ultra adhuc sponsam Christi incorruptam præsentiæ suæ dedecore, et impudica atque incesta contagione, violaret. See Cheisum's remarks, p. 134. If these charges against Felicissimus were true, they were something more than "irregularities."

A Roman censor would have been

a fairer subject of comparison than a consul. On the other hand it must be admitted that the charge of adultery deepens very rapidly, as the controversy becomes more violent. It is first represented as a single act, recently detected, and which men of character were prepared to substantiate: adulterii etiam crimen accedit, quod patres nostri graves viri deprehendisse se nuntiaverunt, et probaturos se asseverarunt. Epist. xxxviii. The heretic has now darkened into a man of notorious and general profligacy. Nor can it be denied that of the whole long epistle, very far the larger and the more passionate part dwells on the breach of ecclesiastical unity, rather than on the violation of Christian holiness.- MILMAN,

182

of the

STRENGTH OF CHRISTIANITY.

despised by the world, is more truly grateful to the pride of the human heart than the possession of the most despotic power, imposed by arms and conquest on a reluctant people.* In the course of this important, though perRecapitulation haps tedious, inquiry, I have attempted to display five causes. the secondary causes which so efficaciously assisted the truth of the Christian religion. If among these causes we have discovered any artificial ornaments, any accidental circumstances, or any mixture of error and passion, it cannot appear surprising that mankind should be the most sensibly affected by such motives as were suited to their imperfect nature. It was by the aid of these causes, exclusive zeal, the immediate expectation of another world, the claim of miracles, the practice of rigid virtue, and the constitution of the primitive church, that Christianity spread itself with so much success in the Roman empire. To the first of these the Christians were indebted for their invincible valor, which disdained to capitulate with the enemy whom they were resolved to vanquish. The three succeeding causes supplied their valor with the most formidable arms. The last of these causes united their courage, directed their arms, and gave their efforts that irresistible weight which even a small band of well-trained and intrepid volunteers has so often possessed over an undisciplined multitude, ignorant of the object, and careless of the event of the war. In the various religions Weakness of Polytheism, some wandering fanatics of Egypt polytheism. and Syria who addressed themselves to the credulous superstition of the populace, were perhaps the only order of priests 160 that derived their whole support and credit from their sacerdotal profession, and were very

of

150 The arts, the manners, and the vices of the priests of the Syrian goddess are very humorously described by Apuleius, in the eight book of his Metamorphoses.

This supposition appears unfounded: the birth and the talents of Cyprian might make us presume the contrary. Thascius Cæcilius Cyprianus, Carthaginensis, artis oratoria professione clarus, magnam sibi gloriam, opes, honores acquisivit, epularibus canis et largis dapibus assuetus, pretiosa veste conspicuus, auro atque purpura fulgens, fascibus oblectatus et honoribus, stipatus clientium cuneis, frequentiore comitatu officii agminis honestatus, ut ipse de se loquitur in Epistola ad Donatum. See Dr. Cave, Hist. Liter, b. i. p. 87.- GUIZOT.

Cave has rather embellished Cyprian's language. MILMAN.

Cyprian's language respecting himself was, as Dean Milman admits, “rather embellished." by Dr. Cave. Gibbon has been accused of misrepresenting the character of Cyprian. It will come more fully forward in the next chapter. In the mean time it is sufficient to remark, that this prelate had formed himself by the writings of Tertullian, whose vehemence all moderate Christians lament and disavow. ENGLISH CHURCHMAN.