ture every galleon for several years in succession. Then the hardships of the Filipinos and Spaniards residing in the islands were almost unbearable. Strangely enough, Spain did not seem to learn to send her treasure in any other way, or by any other route. When peace was made between Holland and Spain about the middle of the eighteenth century these depredations ceased.

Late in 1761 war was declared between Spain and England, and a British fleet, under Admiral Cornish, carrying a land force under General Draper, in all 6,380 men, captured Manila, after a brief but bloody defense. The city was officially given over to indiscriminate pillage by the English and native Indian troops. The robbery, rapine, and violence of those two awful days can hardly be imagined. After two days of general looting, the Spanish were compelled to pay $4,000,000 (silver) as an indemnity. It was impossible to raise it all in Manila; so, after taking all the silver they could secure from the churches, the British accepted orders on the Spanish treasury for the remaining $2,000,000. These orders were never pressed upon the Spanish government, as it was believed in England that the officers in charge at Manila had secured all the indemnity that it was right to demand. The British held Manila until peace was declared between the two nations, and then sailed away.

Four times Spanish officials sought to exterminate the Chinese. The first time was about 1603. In that year two richly-dressed ambassadors from the Emperor of China arrived in Manila. They stated that their master had heard that there was a mountain of solid gold near Cavite on the island of Luzon, and they had been sent to see if this report were true, and if so, on what terms the emperor could secure a share in this massed

wealth. The Spanish governor-general treated the ambassadors with profound respect, proved to them that the report was pure fiction, and sent them away with rich presents. But he and his advisers were thoroughly frightened. They believed that the story about a mountain of gold was a polite invention, and that the real purpose of these ambassadors was to find out the best way to subdue the islands. The officials believed that the Chinese in Manila were leagued with their countrymen to the north, and would all help the imaginary Chinese army of invasion when it arrived in the bay. Consequently, all Chinese were watched. Some were arrested on empty suspicions. The Chinese community felt that mischief was intended against them, and secured arms for defense. Relations became so far strained that, late in the year, actual fighting broke out on the north side of the Pasig River in Manila, and in three days of horrible carnage at least twenty-five thousand Chinese were either killed or taken prisoners. Again in 1639, in 1660, and 1820, general massacres of Chinese took place in Manila and throughout the Islands. In all these affrays the Celestial gave a bloody account of himself, and all survivors not only staid on, but sent to China for relatives to take the places made vacant by butchery.

Insurrections against Spanish rule have been frequent. At no time could they succeed. At no time were they an effort for independence. They were always a blind, striking out against glaring injustice and pitiless inhumanity on the part of their political or religious masters. When the United Colonies of America revolted successfully and became a separate nation, leading Filipinos felt the blow "struck for freedom." In 1809 the Supreme Council in Spain convened the famous

FORTIFIED GATE AND CITY WALL, MANILA.

(Drawbridge and chains can be seen at outer gate, and coat-of-arms, over gate in the wall proper.)

Cortes de Cadiz, in which were assembled delegates from Cuba, Venezuela, and the Philippines. Later, the Act of Constitution of 1812 was passed. Under the provisions of this act each of the colonies was given the right to send one or more representatives to the Cortes. In Manila the Act was suspended very soon afterwards. In 1822-23, however, the Cortes revived the Act, and under its provisions seventeen representatives from the Philippines took part in parliamentary debates in the Spanish Cortes. Until 1837 Filipino delegates sat as members of the Cortes, with but one or two interruptions. It was then voted to exclude them. But the deed had been done. For a quarter of a century Filipino delegates had been recognized as members of the chief lawmaking body of Spain. They were now back among their own people, and they and those whom they could influence would never again tamely submit to the cruel injustice and grinding oppression of the government in the Philippines. They would agitate, and even fight, not for independence, but for justice. In 1868, after Queen Isabella II was deposed, and during the continuance of the revolutionary government with its foundation of republican principles, an Assembly was voted for Filipinos in Manila. Its members were to be those born in the colony. They had the power of suggesting reforms for consideration by the home government. But when monarchy again came to its own, the Assembly came to an end.

In 1872, what is known as the Cavite insurrection took place. It arose in a dispute over the right of Spanish friars to occupy positions as parish priests. By the provisions of the Treaty of Trent, friars were forbidden to act in this capacity. This provision was deliberately trampled under foot by the all powerful friars,