can be grown nearly all the year round in pretty much the same way as lettuce, but it is necessary to tie the top leaves together in order to blanch them. If unblanched they are not very palatable, being somewhat bitter and tough.

The tieing should be done on dry warm days when the leaves are dry, as if tied up when wet they will rot and decay.

Endive succeeds well, sown in the open ground, and subsequently thinned out to 5 or 6 inches apart, and should be ready for use in 45 or 50 days after sowing.

THE RADISH.

The Radish (Raphanus sativas) is an annual which has been in cultivation from prehistoric times, and is supposed to have originated in Southern Asia. Mention is made of the radish in Chinese books written more than 3,000 years ago. In England, the first record of the radish we have is in 1548, when it is spoken of by a writer on horticulture as a new vegetable which had recently come into use.

Radishes can be grown here all the year round, but in the very hot weather they succeed better if protected from the sun by a light shade. The seed may be sown broadcast, very thinly, and simply raked lightly into the soil, but the better way is to sow in shallow drills about 6 inches apart, and 1 inch or 4-inch deep. Rank new manure must not be used for radishes, and the soil should be finely pulverised and friable.

Light, sandy soil enriched with thoroughly decomposed manure will grow the best and most tender radishes. Sow some seed about once in 3 weeks to keep up a supply.

There are two distinct types of radishes-namely, long, and turnip-rooted or round; both of these require precisely the same treatment, except that the round kinds may be grown in shallower soil than the long-rooted varieties.

MUSTARD.

Mustard (Sinapis alba) is an excellent salad, and is easily grown.

In this country it can be cultivated in the open air in the autumn and winter, but requires a light shade in the summer. The seed may be sown in shallow drills 6 inches apart, or in boxes broadcast, and should be lightly covered, or merely pressed down into the soil. Germination will be greatly assisted by covering the box or drills with a piece of cheesecloth or similar material for a day or two.

The young plants, when from 2 to 3 inches high, are cut for salad.

CURLED CRESS.

Curled cress (Lepidium sativum) is grown in precisely the same way, and is also used in the same way. Mustard and cress are usually grown together, either the seeds being mixed or being sown at the same time close beside each other. Both should be sown pretty thickly, because they are used before the young plants begin to crowd each other. A little seed of each should be sown once a fortnight if it is desired to have some mustard and cress always ready for cutting.

WATERCRESS.

Watercress (Nasturtium officinale), which is a perennial plant, and a native of Great Britain, is a favourite salad everywhere. Although the natural habitat of this plant is in still water, yet it can be grown without much difficulty in a garden. The young plants may be raised from seed, but propagation is usually effected by means of cuttings.

To raise the plants from seed, an ordinary seed-box with plenty of drainage is used. This is filled with rotten manure and sand, and, after being smoothed and levelled, a thorough soaking with water is given, after which the seed is sown on the surface. The box is then placed in the shade, and the soil kept moist until the seeds germinate. In watering, a very fine rose must be used, so that the seeds will not be washed out. When the plants are a few weeks high they

should be transplanted to other boxes or to a shady bed, and when 6 or 7 inches long transferred to permanent beds. The beds should be made by digging trenches 10 inches or 1 foot deep, heavily manured, and dug over and smoothed and levelled in the bottom. The plants may then be set out about 1 foot apart. Abundance of water is necessary at all stages of their growth, and if treated in this way the cress should be ready to cut in about six weeks after planting. The planting should be done in the winter months, so that the cress may be well established before the weather gets too hot. Cuttings will also grow readily in the winter, and they should be grown in boxes, and afterwards transplanted in the same way as seedlings. To plant cress in a gully or waterhole, set the plants at the sides or bottom, and allow the stems to float on the water. The best place to plant watercress is beside a small gently-running stream or in a clean shady ditch; but as everyone cannot have these in his garden he must do the best he can. The overflow of a spring or well or the outlet of a landdrain are as suitable places as can be found in the absence of a stream.

With a little care and trouble, anyone can have a constant supply of salads of some kind, and the benefits of supplementing our too plentiful meat diet with fresh and wholesome salads are so great that it is difficult to understand why many farmers and others on the land hardly ever take the trouble to sow even a few radishes.

Dairying.

BY FRED. G. JONES.

(Read before the Mungore Farmers' Association, May 20, 1899.)

DAIRYING is a subject of world-wide importance, in consequence of which it is the most written about of any coming under the head of "Farming," so much so, in fact, that it is well nigh impossible to bring forward anything original. The highest authorities of Europe, America, and Australasia have been drawn on for information for the purpose of this paper, and all statements of fact may be accepted as thoroughly reliable.

Owing to the revolution that has taken place of late in the dairying industry, consequent on central butter factories superseding home dairies, dairying, as an adjunct of the farm, seems doomed to become a lost art, which will be replaced by milk farming.

The whole question may, I think, be most conveniently discussed under two aspects: The commercial one, showing what markets are open to us, and their capacity for taking our dairy products; and then the best means we can adopt to obtain and hold our own in them.

We will take the commercial view first, because the first question asked when any enterprise is about to be undertaken is-" Will it pay?" That question may certainly be answered in the affirmative, a comfortable living being obtainable, with but small chance of making a big fortune.

Thanks to the introduction of steam, ensuring quick transit, together with the provision of refrigerating chambers on the steamships, Queensland dairy produce may be placed on the English markets, which seem practically without limit at the most favourable season. The extent of this market may be judged from the fact that in 1896, which is the latest year for which I have been able to obtain statistics, the quantity of butter imported into England reached the enormous total of 340,250,000 lb., of which 137,000,000 lb. were from Denmark, and 52,000,000 lb. from France.

As showing the expansion of imports, Canada shipped to Great Britain in 1894 2,339,000 lb., and in 1896 9,896,000 lb.—an increase of 7,557,000 lb. And there can be no doubt that later returns will show a still greater increase. The consideration of how we are to benefit by this great market introduces the second part of this paper, and more properly relates to dairying. Of course the obvious reply to the question is: Put a prime article on the market." But this is insufficient, as it raises the question of how that is to be done, and thus involves the breed of cattle best suited for the purpose, their feeding and

treatment.

The subject of butter making and packing does not enter into the question, as the export trade can only be conducted by the factory. Now as to the best breed of cattle for dairying. This must to a great extent depend on the class of country in which the milk farmer is located. Generally speaking, there are six dairy breeds, each one of which has characteristics which make them specially suitable for different purposes-either butter, cheese, or milk. They are Shorthorn, Ayrshire, Holstein, Devon, Guernsey, and Jersey. The last two, however, are so nearly alike that for the purpose of this paper they may be considered as one, speaking of them as Channel Islands cattle. The Victorian Government dairy expert, in his work entitled "Butter-making in Theory and Practice in Australia," gives their yields in milk and butter per 100 lb of milk as follows:

Shorthorn, 4,000 lb. of milk per season, with 43 per cent. butter. Ayrshire, 4,500 to 5,000 lb. of milk, with 4 per cent. butter. Holstein, 6,000 lb. of milk and 3 per cent. butter. Devons 3,000 lb. of milk, with 4 to 5 per cent. butter. Channel Islands cattle, 3.500 lb. of milk and 5 to 6 per cent. butter. Of these five breeds, the Shorthorn is a pre-eminently useful one, but, unfortunately, only does really well on rich and abundant pastures. In this part of Queensland, they are not Al. The Ayrshire, although a useful breed, is more suited for cheese than for butter farming. The Holstein, with its large milk yield of 6,000 lb. of milk per season, but with its poor yield of butter, is quite outclassed, except for milk-selling, where quantity rather than richness is the chief aim. The Devons are a very useful class, but their yield of milk is very small. Still, their hardiness and ability to adapt themselves to do well where larger breeds would fall away, while as steers they are among the best workers, and also make good beef, leaves them in a prominent position, so that they must not be overlooked.

There now only remain the butter breeds par excellence-the Channel Islands cattle, which have been bred in their native home for centuries for the one purpose of making butter; and where butter is the product required to attain the greatest success, Jersey blood, either pure or grade animals, must form part of the herd. A few extracts from good authorities may not be without interest. Willard says:

"No one breed can be recommended for all situations, or to best suit the wants of all persons engaged in butter dairying. Farms differ widely in their character. Some lands have a level surface, others are rolling, and still others are broken and hilly. Soils, too, vary from the richest to the poorest.

'Again, one farmer wishes to make butter and cheese; another wants to get the best returns in butter, cheese, and beef, or in butter and beef; while a third is looking simply for the best butter yield alone. It is evident that no one breed will fulfil all these conditions at once and at the same time. As a general principle, it may be affirmed that good butter can be produced from any breed, and, not unfrequently, a common cow, with no renowned blood in her veins to boast of, will yield as much and as good butter as the boasted cow that has a long record in the herd-book. As a rule, it may be said that the small breeds give the richest milk. The Jersey and the Devon are, perhaps, the most noted in this regard. They do not yield so large a quantity as some other breeds; nor does it always follow that a cow yielding very rich milk will be the most profitable for butter-making, as a cow giving a larger quantity of average good milk may make better returns in butter.

B

"The Ayrshire gives a large quantity of milk of average good quality, but inferior in richness to that of the Jersey or Devon, and on some farms she may be the best butter cow. The same may be said of the Shorthorn.

"The Jersey cow has some characteristics not common to other breeds. She yields not only a very rich milk, but it is of a deep yellow colour, and the butter is of a harder and more waxy texture than that from other breeds.

"Among butter dairymen, the purebred Jersey or a dash of Jersey blood is very much esteemed. It is claimed that the butter from Jersey cows, on account of the peculiarities named, has a superiority which will command a better price than other butter. Much of the high-priced butter of Philadelphia is made from Jersey cows.

"The dairyman should have a clear understanding as to his situation, the character of his lands, and what he seeks to realise from his stock, and then choose that breed which is best adapted to his purpose. Not that a thoroughbred herd is indispensable; the cheapest and most practical course to be adopted will be to select the best common cows that are to be had, and cross them with a pure bull of the breed best adapted to his purpose."

From my own experience, I would not recommend a herd of Jerseys alone, the butter being too deep in colour. One in seven or eight is a very good proportion.

Now a few words as to feeding and shelter. Both are necessary, but shelter without stall feeding is better than feeding without shelter. So much by way of preface. Feeding to be profitable must be abundant; otherwise the cows will just hang about, and so do worse than when not fed. Then, again, the feed, whatever it may be, must be cheaply raised or there is no profit. It must not be supposed that because a cow is fed on a highly nutritious food, her yield of butter will increase in direct proportion. The real fact of the case is that every cow has a structural limit in the richness of her milk, and beyond this standard no amount of feeding will increase that richness. A cow that has not been fed up to that limit will, of course, increase until it is reached, and then will remain at a standstill. "Some dairymen are under the impression that exceedingly rich milk is made by excessive feeding, ignoring the fact that the real butter cow must be sought for in particular animals or breeds noted for this peculiarity." The same reasoning holds equally good as regards quantity of milk, which depends, not so much on the quantity of food eaten, as on what can be digested and made into blood, and the quantity of blood the mammary glands can convert into milk. As to the best food for dairying purposes, the first thing is variety, and in this respect good pasture is by far the best. For stall feeding, roots and green fodders of various kinds are admirable, and, if possible, the ration should always contain some bran or pollard or both, as they are both much above the standard value of food stuffs. Best meadow hay is taken as the standard, and is put down as 100, bran as 125, and pollard 115, so that, mixed in due proportions with poorer feeds, it is possible to make a standard ration. Of green fodders, the range is extensive. A capital mixture in Victoria, and no doubt in Queensland for the winter, is a mixture of oats, rye, barley, veitches, and rape. Rape is also very good mixed with other feeds, but needs to be used sparingly on account of its high nutritive value-197-and also because of the oiliness it gives to butter. Ensilage is, according to the trials made by Mr. John Mahon at the Gatton Agricultural College, and published in the Queensland Agricultural Journal, useless for milking cows, although in hard times it will be valuable for dry stock, because if it does not feed it fills, and a cow must have its paunch full for the purposes of rumination. No hard-and-fast line can be laid down as to what is the best food; each dairyman must be guided by

*

It was stated in the September (1898) number of the Journal that Mr. Mahon preferred green barley to ensilage as a milk-producer, but the ensilage he referred to was made of pigeon pea and green maize. In the November number he corrected the impression which had got abroad that he condemned ensilage altogether. On the contrary, he has always advocated its use "if made from sound materials, not rotten stuff," by which pigeon pea was understood. The College herd were at the time being fed on ensilage conserved from green oats and Cape barley with good results.-Ed. Q.A.J.

circumstances and as to what he can produce most readily. But there is one most important point which cannot be overlooked; and that is, water. It may be laid down as a fundamental principle that, without good water, it is impossible to have good milk. The truth of this may be easily seen when it is remembered that according to the analysis of Dr. Voelcker, the chemist of the Royal Agricultural Society, England, the composition of genuine cow's milk is as follows:Four samples are taken, thus showing what variation may be looked for.

As to shelter, it need not be elaborate, but sufficient to keep the cows comfortably warm. Iron roofing is not, in my opinion, desirable, as it cools very quickly, and in winter that would be a state of affairs to be avoided; shingles or bark are preferable, though not so durable. On this point the dairy-farmer must use his own judgment, and so long as warmth and dryness are secured he cannot go far wrong.

PRINCIPLES OF SHEEP BREEDING.
No. 2.

BY HERMANN SCHMIDT.

I HAVE tried to explain that the variable nature of our domestic animals is due chiefly to the fact that they are living under entirely different conditions than did their wild ancestors, and that by careful selection, and ultimately by inbreeding, we can produce great uniformity in their outer appearance as well as in their internal organisation. So that the desirable qualities which we have endeavoured to establish are now more or less constantly transmitted to the coming generations. Generally speaking, we must suppose that every peculiarity is more or less liable to be transmitted: the qualities of the body and of the mind, such as shape, size, and constitutional tendencies, disposition to diseases and other deficiencies, temperament, virtues, vices, and habits; but since our domestic animals possess the power of transferring their individuality personally in different degrees, and as they are still under the influence of those agencies which have caused their variability in the first instance, occasional deviations from their present form still occur, though rarely; these are called reversions or throwings back. In many cases it is difficult to ascertain whether any such new form is merely to be considered as the reappearance of a type which was common amongst the ancestors of the animals that show such a deviation, or whether it has been produced through the agencies of change of food, of superabundance of it, or of bad nutrition. Changes of climate, or other circumstances for which we cannot account, may also have caused them.

By reversion we understand the reappearance of peculiarities that have existed amongst the ancestors, as I have explained before. Infection means any effect on the mind, whilst impregnation implies the introduction of some organised substance into a female during the acts of conception or gestation. Under the head of infection would come such as Jacob's trick to obtain spotted lambs. Amongst the cases of remarkable deviations from the prevalent type there are some which admit of other explanations than that of reversion. I shall enumerate a few of these cases, and then give the explanations that have been suggested by various naturalists. We have here to distinguish between what may be called sports of nature and those malformations which may be attributed to imperfect development, such as hare-lip and other instances of the imperfect