summer season, as they blow violently for an hour or two, and give little time to shorten sail; even coasters, and regular traders with local knowledge are caught occasionally, losing sails or spars.

When the barometer stands high (30-20 to 30-40) and is steady with the fall of the north-east breeze, little fear may be entertained of a "burster." The wind in this case falls light, veers round to north-west and west, and blows gently off the land during the remainder of the night.

These general directions, however, are not always to be depended upon, but ample warning will be afforded by the falling of the barometer, and the singular lightening of the sky to the south-west and southward, to which quarter the wind will gradually veer, and freshen up to a strong gale. Bad weather may then be expected, bringing with it rain and a dense atmosphere, lasting frequently from two to four days, the wind veering from S.S.E. to S.S.W., and blowing violently in squalls.

The navigator acquainted with the coast, or sure of his position, when to the southward of Sydney, may make a fair wind of this, and run to within five or six miles to windward of the heads, and the same distance off shore, when he should heave-to with the tug and pilot flags flying, and wait a chance of being seen from the signal station during any temporary break in the weather. He may generally depend upon getting into port in an hour or two later, as the tug is always in readines, and will take off a pilot.

The hot winds, which come from the north-west, deriving their high temperature from the interior of Australia, produce a disagreeable, dry, oppressive, enervating atmosphere, which is frequently injurious to health. The lurid appearance of the sky to the north-west and the barometer, which falls in proportion to the strength of these winds, give unfailing warning of their approach, but being off the land they are not much feared by vessels. These winds usually come on in the forenoon, and blow more or less violently till evening, sometimes lasting for two days; when heavy black banks of clouds, charged with electricity, will be observed rising from the south-west and southward, and rapidly approaching. The wind will shift almost instantly from the hot north-west quarter in a squall to south-west, accompanied with a burst of thunder, lightning, and heavy rain, which will continue more or less violently from three to twelve hours, veering first to the southward, and on the following day to the south-east and eastward, with fine weather, and a pleasant rarefied atmosphere. The sudden change of temperature with this shift of wind, though perhaps trying to delicate constitutions, is no less marked than

agreeable; the thermometer in the shade having been known to fall from 110° to 68° in less than an hour.

Towards the end of March the north-east winds cease, and in April the westerly winds commence, and last till September, a season of clear, bracing atmosphere, and a bright sky. Small fleecy semi-detached clouds, rising to an elevation of about 30°, and remaining in the western quarter of the heavens indicate the approach of the westerly winds; the barometer always falls as their strength increases.

These winds come on between 8 and 10 a.m., suddenly, even within ten minutes, rising from a calm or light air to half a gale of wind, and blow strongest with fierce squalls from about noon to 3 p.m., dying away at sunset and succeeded by light variable airs during the rest of the night.

With a prevalence of these winds, the weather is refreshing and healthy.

Vessels navigating the coast during the winter season, will not only avoid the current, but ensure getting smooth water by keeping close in-shore, though the wind will be puffy from the proximity of the land.

The interruptions to the land winds are gales from the south, south-east, and east. The two former come on with a high barometer, which in no way indicates their approach, and last two to five days accompanied by thick rainy weather, during which the land is difficult to distinguish two or three miles off. It is remarkable that whilst the barometer falls during the summer months to the approach of a southerly gale, it always stands highest during a continuance of the wind from that quarter, in the winter months. In July, 1868, for example, a southerly gale sprung up with barometer at 30-26, and continued to blow with great violence, shifting in rain squalls from S.S.W. to S.S.E., for two days, the barometer steadily rising the whole time to 30-52, when it suddenly fell, to as sudden a shift of wind in a terrific rain squall from the north-east; in less than twelve hours the barometer stood at 29.68, blowing a westerly gale with clear weather.

The easterly gales, which appear to be regular in the number as well as the periods of their visits during the year, are the winds of all other most dreaded in the province, both on shore and afloat, bringing with them floods causing great destruction of property, and loss of life on land and at sea. June, July, and sometimes August are the months in which the province of New South Wales is visited by these gales in their full violence. During these months, when the weather is unsettled, with the wind unsteady,

cloudy weather and occasional rain, easterly gales may be looked for. They generally come with light winds from the northward, accompanied with rain sometimes lasting twenty-four hours, and an overcast, murky sky; veering round to the north-east, they freshen gradually into a gale, which increases and blows with more or less violence for two or three days, veering from N.E. to E.S.E., accompanied with masses of heavy leaden-hued clouds, and sheets of incessant blinding rain. The atmosphere at times is so thick as to render it difficult to see objects a quarter of a mile distant. They blow themselves out from north-east and north and die away with a falling barometer, veering to the westward with fine clear weather immediately afterwards.

When the season of these gales is passed, a continuance of fine, westerly weather may be looked for, of from six weeks to two months duration, interrupted perhaps with a fine weather sea breeze occasionally, but the general winds and weather from this time till the end of September is from the westward and fine.

The directions in Australia Directory, Vol. I., page 486, relating to the barometer cannot be improved, except to add that the greatest mean height of the barometer takes place in August and September with south-east and southerly winds, and the lowest mean height in December, January, and February with north-west winds. The highest range being 30-92, and the lowest 29.26, over an interval of five years. During winter months a marked fall in the barometer is certain to be followed by westerly winds and fine weather, whatever may be the quarter or the conditions under which the wind may be blowing when it commences to fall. During the summer months it may be similarly and as surely depended on as the forerunner of a north-west hot wind. These are two cases in which the barometer may be implicitly relied on to indicate coming change of the wind and weather, and there will then be little fear of the wind altering when in this quarter whilst the barometer remains low and steady.

During the summer months the barometer generally falls to the approach of a southerly gale whilst the north-east wind is blowing, but this fall must not be implicitly relied on, as southerly gales occasionally occur without any perceptible change in the glass.

AUSTRALIA.-NEWCASTLE HARBOUR.

Two leading lights are established on the hill over the town, between the Scotch and Roman Catholic churches. At night a white light seen over a red light kept in line bearing S.W. S., will lead

in mid-channel clear of the 13-foot rock off the Boulder Point on the north-west side of the breakwater, and up to the black buoy off the Government boat-shed. By day, the red and white towers in which the lights are placed will be seen, and answer as leading marks, the red tower being the upper one.

This port should never be attempted without a pilot. A vigilant look out is always kept from Nobby Head and from the Harbour Master's hill, and vessels with the signals flying are promptly attended on by both pilot and tug steamer.

A quarter of a mile N. by W. W. from Nobby Head lighthouse on the north side of the channel is a green wreck buoy, showing the position of the Cawarra steamer, which foundered. when endeavouring to enter the harbour during an easterly gale in July, 1866. There are five feet over the iron framework of the paddle-wheels at low water. This wreck forms the nucleus of a bank which in time may become a serious obstruction. Many vessels have been lost on entering this harbour, resulting nearly in every case through an endeavour to enter during south-east and easterly gales.

The easterly and south-east gales on this coast are always accompanied with incessant rains, flooding the lowlands and causing strong freshets in the rivers. They raise a mountainous breaking sea at the entrance of the harbour, in a line from the outer end of the reef off Nobby Head (Big Ben) across to the eastward of the Oyster Bank. This mass of breaking sea would of itself be sufficient to overwhelm ordinary sized vessels; but when, in addition, a freshet of six or seven knots sets out of the river against this heavy easterly roll, to attempt to enter is almost certain destruction. It is therefore to be impressed on seamen, during a hard east or south-east gale, with rain that has lasted more than twenty.four hours, not to attempt to enter Newcastle, but either to keep to sea or make for Port Stephens.

PORT STEPHENS.

Although the directions given in the Australia Directory for entering Port Stephens are all that can be desired in fine weather, still it is found that in bad weather, when the place is more frequented as a harbour of refuge than at any other time, some of the marks given are too distant to be distinguished in rainy or misty weather.

Leading Mark A, as described in Vol. II. page 43 of the Australia Directory, can nearly always be seen leading across the

eastern tail of the Entrance bank in twenty-seven feet. At night, Port Stephens light kept in sight answers the same purpose; run with this on until the north end of Little island is touching the south side of Yacaaba head, bearing E. by N., keep this mark on until Mount Stephens is seen over the low neck between Toomeree summit and Station Peak, bearing S.S.E. E.; the vessel is then to the northward and westward of the Entrance shoal in six fathoms, and may steer up for Nelson head, passing it within half a cable, if necessary, in ten fathoms of water.

The northern end of the sandy beach in Nelson bay kept in line with and about half way down the south slope of Toomeree summit, bearing E. N. nearly, will lead northward of the rocky knoll off Red Patch point, and carry a vessel in twenty-four to twenty-seven feet across the bank stretching to the northward from Sandy Point and Corlette head.

There is a telegraph station at Nelson bay as also at the lighthouse outside.

Vessels bound from Port Stephens to the northward can pass between Cabbage-tree Island and Yacaaba Head, passing the latter about two cables distant, and keeping close along inshore to avoid the current, will find a deep water channel between the mainland and the Broughton Islands.

GENERAL.

THE ROYAL NATIONAL LIFEBOAT INSTITUTION.-On Thursday, 5th January, a meeting of this institution was held at its house, John-street, Adelphi; Thomas Chapman, Esq., F.R.S., V.P., in the chair. There were also present Earl Percy, M.P., Sir Edward Perrott, Bart., W. H. Harton, Esq., Colonel Fitzroy Clayton, Richard Lewis, Esq., and Captain Ward, R.N.

The minutes of the previous meeting having been read, rewards amounting to £358 were voted to the crews of various lifeboats of the institution for going out on service during the recent storms. In many cases the lifeboat men suffered severely from the intense cold. The Tynemouth No. 2 lifeboat, after several gallant attempts, succeeded in saving the crew of seven men from the wrecked brigantine Amalia, of Stavanger. The lifeboat at Porthcawl, South Wales, rescued three men belonging to the smack Dasher, of Cardiff. The Ramsay lifeboat, Two Sisters, took off from the smack Pearl, of

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