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done more; and said he only regretted that they should have labored at the young and little twigs, when they ought to have struck at the root;' words by which it was understood that he meant the queen. Even this unreasonable insolence did not provoke the government to depart from the temperate course which it had laid down. The measures adopted by the pope were, at this time, not less impolitic than cruel and wicked. It is possible that Elizabeth would have been content to have allowed the people to retain their faith so long as her crown was independent. The measures of the pope, and the dissensions he fomented, however, gradually kindled in Elizabeth's mind the most anxious apprehensions for her individual safety as well as that of her throne. The insurrection of Northumberland and Westmoreland was sanctioned by the pope, who, in his letters, exhorts them to persevere in the work, not doubting but that God would grant z them assistance; and that if they should die in : asserting the Catholic faith, and the authority of the see of Rome, it were better for them, with the advantage of a glorious death, to purchase eternal life, than by ignominiously living, with the loss of their souls, shamefully to obey the will of an ungovernable woman.'-Pii. V. Epist. p. 290. Soon after this pious exhortation the pope, in the thirteenth year of the reign of Elizabeth, fulminated the Bull of Excommunication out of the fulness of his apostolic power;' declaring the queen to be a heretic, and a favorer of heretics. We declare her,' said the pope, to be deprived of her pretended title to the kingdom aforesaid, and of all dominions, dignity, and privilege whatsoever: and also the nobility, subjects, and people of the said kingdoins, and all which have in any sort sworn unto her, to be for ever absolved from every such oath, and all manner of duty, of dominion, of allegiance, and obedience. We also command and interdict all and every the noblemen, subjects, and people, aforesaid, that they presume not to obey her, or her monitions, mandates, and laws, and those which shall do to the contrary we do likewise anathemise.' Irritated by this presumptuous and scandalous decree Elizabeth procured an act declaring it to be high treason to affirm that the queen was not a lawful sovereign, or to bring bulls, indulgences, or absolutions from the pope. Matters now threatened so complete a separation of England from Rome that the pope declared it would be of so much benefit to Christendom that Elizabeth should be destroyed, that he was ready to aid in person, to spend the whole revenue of the apostolic see, all the chalices and crosses of the church, and even his very clothes, to procure her destruction, &c. A public disputation was at this time appointed, not, as in Mary's reign, to be concluded by burning those who differed in opinion from the ruling party, but with full liberty of speech, and perfect safety for the Romish disputants. Upon Heath's motion, the queen ordered it should be managed in writing, as the best means to avoid vain altercation; but, when it came to the point, the Romanists, upon some difference concerning the manner of proceeding, refused to dispute at all. For this contempt of the privy council, in whose presence

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they had met, they were fined. Without delay Elizabeth then deprived the refractory bishops, Kitchen of Llandaff being the only one who conformed: there were but fourteen living, many having died in the great mortality at the close of the preceding reign. The vacant sees were filled by Parker, Grindal, Cox, Sands, Jewel, Parkhurst, Pilkington, and others; men worthy to be held in lasting remembrance and honor, who had either escaped, during the Marian persecution, by retiring to the continent or secreting themselves at home. Thus was gradually established, never more, we trust, to be subverted, the separation of England and all the members of her hierarchy from the domination of Rome.

VIII. The Reformation in Denmark, France, &c.-In Denmark the Reformation was introduced as early as the year 1521, in consequence of the ardent desire of Christiern II. to have his subjects instructed in the doctrines of Luther.' His uncle Frederick, duke of Holstein and Sleswick, being appointed his successor, conducted the Reformation with much greater prudence than his predecessor. He permitted the Protestant doctors to preach publicly the sentiments of Luther, but did not venture to change the established government and discipline of the church. However, he procured the publication of a famous edict, by which every subject of Denmark was declared free either to adhere to the tenets of the church of Rome, or to the doctrine of Luther; and the papal tyranny was totally destroyed by his successor Christiern III., who began by suppressing the despotic authority of the bishops, and restoring to their lawful owners a great part of the wealth and possessions which the church had acquired. This was followed by a plan of religious doctrine, worship, and discipline, laid down by Bugenhagius, whom the king had sent for from Wittemberg; and, in 1539, an assembly of the states at Odensee gave a solemn sanction to all these transactions, and settled that form of church government which has since been retained.

The first dawn of the Reformation in France appeared, as we have before noticed, in the preaching of Waldo, who, in the twelfth century, brought to light some truths which had been long hidden amidst the ignorance and superstition of the Romish church; and, though persecution soon attended his steps, it served but to scatter his principles, and disperse his followers over the face of Europe. Waldo himself appears to have proclaimed his opinions in various parts of the continent. The Albigenses, so called from the country about Toulouse, where they dwelt, embraced in a body the doctrine of reform. It was carried into Calabria, Bohemia, Germany, Flanders, Poland, Spain, and even the dominions of the grand sultan.

Calvin was born at Noyon, in Picardy, early in the sixteenth century; when twenty years of age, he first preached the doctrines of the Reformation to his countrymen; and, seven years afterwards (in 1536), printed his Institutes, which contain a full, and certainly a very able, statement of his opinions. This work was dedicated, in a preface written with remarkable elegance of style, to Francis I.; but it does not

seem to have produced much effect on the mind of that monarch. In 1553 Calvin edited an edition of Olivitan's translation of the Bible, which proved of great benefit to the church. In 1557, however, an attempt was made to establish an inquisition at Paris, after the plan of that in Spain, to put down heretical opinions; but it did no effectual mischief. The king of Navarre, who was also a prince of the blood, and through whom the title to the crown of France afterwards descended to his son Henry IV., became about this time a convert to the reformed doctrines. In 1562 the ever-memorable Charles IX. succeeded to his brother. As he was only nine years of age at that time, the government remained in the hands of Catherine. Two years after this period Calvin died. It does not appear that this great man, except at an early period of his life, took directly any personal part in prosecuting the Reformation in France; but it grew up under his inspection; and his authority was the acknowledged human standard of faith and duty. In 1571 the Protestant church in France had reached its highest point of prosperity. A synod was held at Rochelle, where the queen of Navarre, Jean D'Albert, her son, afterwards Henry IV., and two princes of the royal family, attended. At that time the protestants had 2150 churches, some of which contained 10,000 members. The deepest aversion, however, to the views of the Protestants had long dwelt in the minds of all connected with the court, except the few members of their own body; and a plot for getting rid of the reformed religion had long been meditated. To the queen-mother, one of the family of Guise, the atrocious contrivance is due, of the means by which it was to be attempted. On the occasion of the marriage of Henry, with the sister of Charles IX., the whole body of Protestants were enticed to Paris. After the admiral De Coligny, the champion of the reformed cause, as he was really the head of the party, was fairly in the toils, the minds of the populace were exasperated against the Protestants by the contrivance of the Duc de Guise; and, by the command of the king, they were all given up to slaughter. The proclamation for their destruction was made on the night of St. Bartholomew; and, at two o'clock in the morning, the work of death began. The king himself is said to have shot from a gallery many of the fugitives; and neither age, rank, nor character, afforded any protection to the unfortunate victims. Henry of Navarre, the brother-in-law of Charles, the prince De Conde his uncle, and the king's physician, were alone exempted from destruction. Henry and De Conde were hurried from their beds, and dragged, not without danger, before the king, who, when they refused to be converted, as the phrase ran, broke out into an excessive rage, declaring that he would be obeyed as the vicegerent of God; that they must teach others to submit by their acquiescence; and that it became them no longer to hold themselves in opposition to the holy mother. They were in consequence obliged to attend mass. The massacre was continued without cessation for three days, till the king became aghast at his own act, and his conscience

was so haunted with images of murder and death that he directed it should cease. Charles IX: survived this event only one year; he lived, however, to repent of his crimes, and to suffer for them. His death was of that kind which it has pleased God often to inflict upon eminent persecutors of his church. He was tormented in mind and body; and sank into his untimely grave unhonored even by his former friends, and unregretted by every lover of his country. During the concluding period of this reign, the reformed church was at a very low ebb. There could be no security that the anniversary of St. Bartholomew would not be celebrated with a recurrence of the same disasters. The heads of the church were gone. Henry of Navarre himself seemed to have been in a sort of imprisonment, and the remainder of the scattered flock could scarcely be collected together. It was not till the year 1578 that another synod was held, ! and then no formal notice was taken of the late events. Henry III. succeeded his brother in 1574. During his reign the great conflict for independence and religious liberty was being carried on in the Low Countries; and the successful issue of it gave respect and consideration to the Protestant cause wherever its supporters were found.

At length, in 1589, Henry IV. ascended the throne. Never had a prince been nurtured amidst greater dangers, concerned in more critical enterprises, or come to a throne more encompassed with difficulties. He had been well educated by his excellent mother, whose prudence and power he inherited, but not her piety. In the year 1572 he married Margaret, sister of Charles IX., from whom he was divorced. He married a second time Mary of Medicis. This was the first step by which he allied himself to the Catholics; and it was doubted by some whether to it may not be traced another great error of his life, his abjuration of the Protestant faith, which took place in the year 1592. In the year 1598 he granted all his subjects full liberty of conscience by the famous edict of Nantes, and the Reformation seemed to be established throughout his dominions. During the minority of Louis XIV., however, this edict was revoked by cardinal Mazarine; since which time the Protestants have often been cruelly persecuted; nor has the profession of the reformed religion in France been at any time so safe as in most other countries of Europe.

In the other parts of the continent the cause of the Reformation made a considerable, though secret, progress. Some countries threw off the Romish yoke entirely; and in others a prodigious number of families embraced the principles of the reformed religion. It is certain indeed, and some Roman Catholics themselves do not hesitate to acknowledge it, that the papal doctrines and authority would have fallen into ruin in all parts of the world at once, had not the force of the secular arm been employed to support the tottering edifice. In several places the pope put a stop to the progress of the Reformation, by letting loose the inquisitors; who spread dreadful marks of their barbarity through the greatest parts of Europe. These formidable ministers of

superstition put so many to death, and perpe trated such horrid acts of cruelty and oppression, that most of the reformed consulted their safety by a voluntary exile; while others returned to the religion of Rome, at least in external appearance. The political results of the Reformation are thus summarily stated by Villiers :'Europe, plunged for several centuries in a stupor and apathy interrupted only by wars, or rather by incursions and robberies, without any beneficial object to humanity, received at once a new life and a new activity; a universal and deep interest agitated the nations, their powers were developed, their minds expanded by new political ideas. Former revolutions had only exercised men's arms; this employed their heads. The people, who before had been only estimated as flocks passively subject to the caprice of their leaders, now began to act for themselves, and to feel their importance and ability. Those who embraced the reform made common cause with their princes for liberty; and hence arose a closer bond, a community of interests and of action, between the sovereign and his subjects. Both were for ever delivered from the excessive and burdensome power of the clergy, as well as from the struggle, so distressing to all Europe, between the popes and the emperors, for supreme power, Social order was now regulated and brought nearer to perfection. In one part of Europe the church ceased to form an extraneous state within the state; from which it was easy to foretell that this change would one day be effected through the whole of it, and that its head would be reduced to the simple spiritual primacy. At length the Catholic clergy reformed

their conduct on the example of the Protestants, and gained in manners, knowledge, and esteem, as much as they lost in power and riches. Nor has science been less a gainer. It is little more than two centuries since Galileo, having discovered and collected incontestable proofs of the true motion of the earth, was condemned, as a heretic, to perpetual imprisonment, by the tribunal of the inquisition. The ancient system of Roman Catholicism was diametrically opposite to the progress of knowledge; the Reformation, which has contributed to free the human mind from such an adversary, must ever be considered as one of the most fortunate epochs in the intellectual culture of modern nations. The opposite system of liberality, of examination, of free criticism, established by the Reformation, has become the ægis under which the Galileos of subsequent ages have been enabled securely to develope their exalted conceptions.'

The moral effects of the Reformation on the opinions and conduct of mankind must not be overlooked. The intention of the Reformers was, in principle, to free themselves from the despotism and infallibility of the popes; to depend only on the Sacred Writings for the grounds of their belief; and, in short, to overthrow the scholastic divinity, which was become the soul of the Roman theology, and the firm support of the hierarchy. Hence it follows that the Reformation, in its essence, must have had an immediate and powerful influence on the liberty of men's opinions, judgment, and actions. It at once stimulated them to think for themselves, and handed to them a perfect standard of faith and morals.

REFRACT, v. a. Lat. refractus; Fr. reREFRACTION, 1. s. fraction. To break the REFRACTIVE, adj. natural course of rays: the noun substantive and adjective corresponding. Refraction, in general, is the incurvation or change of determination in the body moved, which happens to it whilst it enters or penetrates any medium in dioptricks, it is the variation of a ray of light from that right line, which it would have passed on in, had not the density of the medium turned it aside.

Harris.

The image of the sun should be drawn out into an oblong form, either by a dilatation of every ray, or by any other casual inequality of the refractions. Newton. Those superficies of transparent bodies reflect the greatest quantity of light, which have the greatest refracting power; that is, which intercede mediums that differ most in their refractive densities.

ld. Optics. If its angle of incidence be large, and the refractive power of the medium not very strong to throw it far from the perpendicular, it will be refracted.

Cheyne's Philosophical Principles. Rays of light are urged by the refracting media. Cheyne. Thomson.

Refracted from yon eastern cloud, The grand etherial bow shoots up.

REFRACTION is chiefly used with regard to the rays of light, and is an inflection or deviation of the rays from their rectilinear course on passing

obliquely out of one medium into another of a different density.

That a body may be refracted, it is necessary that it should fall obliquely on the second medium: in perpendicular incidence there is no refraction. Yet Vossius and Snellius imagined they had observed a perpendicular ray of light undergo a refraction; a perpendicular object appearing in the water nearer than it really was: but this was attributing that to a refraction of the perpendicular rays, which was owing to the divergency of the oblique rays after refraction, from a nearer point. Yet there is a manifest refraction even of perpendicular rays found in island crystal. Rohault adds, that though an oblique know of, yet the obliquity must not exceed a incidence be necessary in all other mediums we certain degree; if it do, the body will not penetrate the medium, but will be reflected instead of being refracted. Thus, cannon-balls, in sea engagements, falling very obliquely on the surface of the water, are observed to bound or rise from it, and to sweep the men from off the enemy's decks. And the same thing happens to the little stones with which children make their ducks and drakes along the surface of water.

The ancients confounded refraction with reflection; and it was Newton who first taught the true difference between them. He shows however that there is a good deal of analogy

between them, and particularly in the case of light.

The laws of the refraction of the rays of light in mediums differently terminated, i. e. whose surfaces are plane, concave, and convex, make the subject of dioptrics. By refraction it is that convex glasses, or lenses, collect the rays, magnify objects, burn, &c., and hence the foundation of microscopes, telescopes, &c. And by refraction it is that all remote objects are seen out of their real places; particularly that the heavenly bodies are apparently higher than they are in reality. The refraction of the air has many times so uncertain an influence on the places of celestial objects near the horizon, that, wherever refraction is concerned, the conclusions deduced from observations that are much affected by it will always remain doubtful, and sometimes too precarious to be relied on. See OPTICS.

The true law of refraction, viz. that the ratio of the sines of the angles made by the perpendicular (to the plane bounding the mediums) with the incident and refracted rays, is a constant and fixed ratio, was first discovered by Willebrord Snell, professor of mathematics, at Leyden. From this law it follows that one angle of inclination, and its corresponding refracted angle, being found by observation, the refracted angles corresponding to the several other angles of inclination are thence easily computed. Now Zahnius and Kircher have found that, if the angle of inclination be 70°, the refracted angle out of air into glass will be 38° 50'; on which principle Zahnius has constructed a table of these refractions for the several degrees of the angle of inclination; a specimen of which here follows:

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Hence it appears that, if the angle of inclination be less than 20°, the angle of refraction out of air into glass is almost one-third of the angle of inclination; and therefore a ray is refracted to the axis of refraction by almost a third part of the quantity of its angle of inclination. And on this principle it is that Kepler, and most other dioptrical writers, demonstrate the refractions in glasses; though, in estimating the law of these refractions, he followed the example of Alhazen and Vitello, and sought to discover it in the proportion of the angles, and not in that of the sines, or cosecants, as discovered by Snell, as mentioned above.

REFRACTION OF ALTITUDE is the arc or portion of a vertical circle, by which the altitude of a star is increased by the refraction of light.

REFRACTION OF ASCENSION AND DESCENSION is an arc of the equator, by which the asc sion and descension of a star, whether right a oblique, is increased or diminished by the t fraction.

REFRACTION OF DECLINATION is an are of circle of declination, by which the declication of a star is increased or diminished by the > fraction.

REFRACTION OF LATITUDE is an arc of a circle of latitude, by which the latitude of a star is i creased or diminished by the refraction.

REFRACTION OF LONGITUDE is an arc of the ecliptic, by which the longitude of a star is n creased or diminished by the refraction.

REFRACTION, TERRESTRIAL OF ATMOSPHE CAL, is that by which terrestrial objects appear to be raised higher than they really are, in serving their altitudes. The quantity of this r fraction is estimated by Dr. Maskelyne at onetenth; by Le Gendre at one-fourteenth; by De Lambre at one-eleventh, and by others at the twelfth of the distance of the object observed. expressed in degrees of a great circle. But there can be no fixed quantity of this refraction, as i depends on the state of the atmosphere, which is very variable. Some very singular effects of this are related in the Philosophical Transactions for 1798, by W. Latham, esq., F. R. S. and A. S.

Many curious effects of atmospherical refraction have been noticed by ingenious men; for which see Dr. Hutton's Dictionary, and the papers of Vince, Huddart, Lathem, &c., in the Philosophi cal Transactions. For more on the theory of atmospherical refraction, the reader may consult the treatises on astronomy by Vince, Gregory, Biot, Woodhouse, and Prony's Architectural Hydraulique. See also our article ASTRONOMY. REFRACTORY, adj. French refractaire; REFRACTORINESS, n. s. Lat. refractarius. It is sometimes accented on the first syllable, but by Shakspeare on the second; sullen; obstinate; perverse sullenness; obstinacy.

There is a law in each well-ordered nation,
To curb those raging appetites that are
Most disobedient and refractory.

Shakspeare.

A rough hewn seaman, being brought before a wise justice for some misdemeanor, was by him ordered to be sent away to prison, and was refractory after be heard his doom, insomuch as he would not stir a foot from the place where he stood; saying, it was better to stand where he was, than go to a worse place. Bacon's Apophthegms. I did never allow any man's refractoriness against the privileges and orders of the houses.

King Charles. It maketh them indocile and intractable, averse from better instruction, pertinacious in their opinions, and refractory in their ways.

Barrow.

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For my name's sake will I defer mine anger, and refrain for thee, that I cut thee not off. Isaiah.

In what place, or upon what consideration soever it be, they do it, were it in their own opinion of no force being done, they would undoubtedly refrain to do it.

Nor from the holy one of heaven
Refrained his tongue.

Hooker.

Milton.

That they fed not on flesh, at least the faithful party before the flood, may become more probable, because they refrained therefrom some time after. Browne's Vulgar Errours. Neptune atoned, his wrath shall now refrain, Or thwart the synod of the gods in vain. Pope. REFRAN'GIBLE, adj. Į Lat. re and franREFRANGIBILITY, n. s. go. Capable of, or tending to, refraction: the noun substantive corresponding.

As some rays are more refrangible than others, that is, are more turned out of their course, in passing from one medium to another; it follows that, after such refraction, they will be separated, and their Locke.

distinct colour observed.

Refrangibility of the rays of light is their disposition to be refracted or turned out of their way, in passing out of one transparent body or medium into another. Newton.

REFRANGIBILITY OF LIGHT is chiefly applied to the disposition of rays to produce different colors. See OPTICS.

REFRESH', v. a. Fr. refraischer, refresREFRESH'ER, n. s. cher; Lat. refrigero. To REFRESH'MENT. revive; recreate; relieve; improve; refrigerate: a refresher is that which refreshes refreshment, relief, or that which gives relief.

A dew coming after heat refresheth. Eccl. xliii. 22.
Service shall with steel sinews toil;
And labour shall refresh itself with hope.

Shakspeare.
The rest refresh the scaly snakes, that fold
The shield of Pallas, and renew their gold.

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Such honest refreshments and comforts of life, our christian liberty has made it lawful for us to use. Sprat.

His meals are coarse and short, his employment warrantable, his sleep certain and refreshing, neither interrupted with the lashes of a guilty mind, nor the aches of a crazy body.

South.

He was full of agony and horrour upon the approach of a dismal death, and so had most need of the refreshments of society, and the friendly assistance of his disciples.

South. Thomson. REFRIGERATE, v. a. Lat. refrigero. REFRIGERANT, adj. To cool; refrigeREFRIGERATION, n. s. rant and refrigeREFRIGERATIVE, adj. rative, as well as REFRIGERATORY,adj. & n. s. | refrigeratory, adREFRIGE RIUM, N. s. Jjective, mean

The kind refresher of the summer heats.

cooling, or having the power to cool: refrigeration, the act of cooling, or state of being cooled : refrigeratory, noun substantive, the part of old distilling vessels that was placed about the head of a still, and filled with water to cool the con densing vapors; any thing internally cooling: refrigerium, cool refreshment; refrigeration.

In the cure of gangrenes, you must beware of dry heat, and resort to things that are refrigerant, with an inward warmth and virtue of cherishing. Bacon.

The great breezes, which the motion of the air in great circles, such as the girdle of the world produceth, do refrigerate; and therefore in those parts noon is nothing so hot, when the breezes are great, as about ten of the clock in the forenoon. Id.

Divers do stut; the cause may be the refrigeration of the tongue, whereby it is less apt to move.

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If it arise from an external cause, apply refrigerants, without any preceding evacuation. Wiseman. REFT, part. pret. of REAVE, which see. Deprived; taken away. Obsolete.

Thus we well left, he better reft, In heaven to take his place, That like by life and death, at last, We may obtain like grace. Ascham's Schoolmaster.

About his shoulders broad he threw An hairy hide of some wild beast, whom he In savage forest by adventures slew, And reft the spoil his ornament to be. Spenser. Another ship had seized on us,

And would have reft the fishers of their prey.

Shakspeare.

Our dying hero from the continent Ravished whole towns, and forts from Spaniards reft, Wuller. As his last legacy to Britain left.

REFUGE, n. s. & v. a. French refuge; Ital. Port. and Span. refugio; Lat. refugium. Shelter or protection from danger or distress; expedient: to shelter a refugee is one who seeks a refuge. They shall be your refuge from the avenger of blood. The Lord will be a refuge for the oppressed, a refuge in times of trouble.

Joshua.

Psalm ix. 9.

This last old man,
Whom with a cracked heart I have sent to Rome,
Loved me above the measure of a father:
Their latest refuge was to send him. Shakspeare.
Silly beggars,

Who, sitting in the stocks, refuge their shame
That many have, and others must, sit there.

Id.

Light must be supplied, among graceful refuges by terracing any story in danger of darkness.

Wotton.

Rocks, dens, and caves, but I in none of these Find place or refuge. Milton's Paradise Lost. The young vipers supposed to break through the belly of the dam, will, upon any fright, for protection run into it; for then the old one receives them in at her mouth, which way, the fright being past, they

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