still more rarely is the fleshy part of the animal preserved. But one of the most important and interesting of the observations for which we are indebted to the precision of the French naturalist is the distinction of two different formations amongst secondary strata. These consist of alternate deposits from salt and fresh water; and are characterised by the nature of the shells which are found imbedded in them. The country about Paris is founded upon chalk. This is covered with clay and a coarse limestone, containing marine petrifactions. Over this lies an alternating series of gypsum and clay, in which occur the remains of quadrupeds, birds, fish, and shells, all of land or fresh water species. Above this interesting stratum lie marl and sandstone, containing marine shells, which are covered with beds of limestone and flint, which again contain petrifactions of fresh water remains. The upper bed of all is of an alluvial nature, in which trunks of trees, bones of elephants, oxen, and rein-deer, intermingled with salt water productions, seem to suggest that both salt and fresh water have contributed to its accumulation. This alternate flux and reflux of the two fluids is a most extraordinary phenomenon, and promises to lead to an important conclusion respecting the general theory of the earth. We are inclined to think that something analogous to the process which produced these changes may be perceived in operations which are going on in our own time, and in gradual alterations which have been effected within the memory of one generation. The following extract from the accurate descriptions of the indefatigable De Luc will better explain our ideas. We have selected one from among many instances which are afforded by an attentive examination of our own coasts. Slapton Lee occupies the lower part of a combe, which at first formed a recess in the bay, but, the sea before it being shallow, the waves brought up the gravel from the bottom along the coast, and the beach thus produced passed at length quite across this recess, which it closed: since then, the fresh water proceeding from the combe has almost entirely displaced the salt water within this space, because the former arriving there freely, and passing through the gravel of the beach, repels the small quantity of the sea water which filtrates into it. Slapton Lee, which is about two miles in length and a quarter of a mile in its greatest breadth, is a little brackish, on account of its communications with the sea water, as well through the gravel in common seasons, as when there is any opening in the beach; however, it contains fresh water fish, carp, tench, and pike. The sediments of the land waters are tending to fill up this basis, and wherever the bottom is sufficiently raised the reeds are beginning to grow.' Such may have been the process which formed a fresh water deposit upon a marine basis. By extending the analogy further, we can have little difficulty in conceiving that the barrier thus raised by the action of the waves may have been easily destroyed again, even by an extraordinary exertion of the same power which raised it, or by some other of those violent revolutions whose effects are marked upon the face of the whole earth. Thus a way was opened for the return of the waters of the ocean, which again deposited their sediments and the remains of their living tribes, and thus gave rise to the upper salt water strata. The same causes again acting excluded once more the waves of the sea, and gave time for the deposit of the upper fresh water formation. Such an explanation appears to us simple and satisfactory. It accounts for the phenomena of nature by nature's laws. But, however this may be, the sagacity which first pointed out the distinction cannot be too much praised. The discovery has already stimulated the exertions of others, and there is reason to suppose that the phenomenon is not only not confined to the environs of Paris, but is of pretty general occurrence in secondary countries. A similar formation has been observed in the Isle of Wight; and has been most scientifically described and compared with the French strata by a member of the Geological Society. It is remarkable that those coarse limestone strata which are chiefly employed at Paris for building, are the last formed series which indicate a long and quiet continuance of the water of the sea above the surface of the continent. About them indeed there are found formations containing abundance of shells and other productions of the sea, but these consist of alluvial materials, sand, marle, sand-stone, or clay, which rather indicate transportations that have taken place with some degree of violence than strata formed by quiet depositions; and, where some regular rocky strata of inconsiderable extent and thickness appear above or below these alluvial formations, they generally bear the marks of having been deposited from fresh water. All the known specimens of the bones of viviparous land quadrupeds have either been found in these formations from fresh water, or in the alluvial formations; whence there is every reason to conclude that these animals have only begun to exist, or at least to leave their remains in the strata of our earth since that retreat of the sea which was next before its last irruption. It has also been clearly ascertained, from an attentive consideration of the relation of the different re mains with the strata in which they have been discovered, that oviparous quadrupeds are found in much older strata than those of the viviparous class. Some of the former have been observed in and even beneath the chalk. Dry land and fresh waters must therefore have existed before the foundation of the chalk strata. No bones of mammiferous quadrupeds are to be found till we come to the newer formations, which lie over the coarse limestone strata incumbent on the chalk. Determinate order may also be observed in the succession of these. The genera which are now unknown are the lowest in position: unknown species of known genera are next in succession: and lastly, the bones of species, apparently the same with those which are now in existence, are never found but in the latest alluvial depositions. The more we learn respecting the secondary strata of the globe, the more interesting becomes the investigation. The bold outline of the pri mitive ranges, their cloud-capt summits and majestic forms, are calculated to rivet the attention; but they rather force the fancy to speculate upon their formation than lead the judgment by internal evidences to their origin. It is in the curious observations above recited that we seem to approach the history of our own state. The study of secondary formations is as yet scarcely commenced. The labors of Cuvier have thrown a new light upon their high importance; already by his exertions has the history of the most recent changes been ascertained, in one particular spot, as far as the chalk formation. This, which has hitherto been conceived to be of very modern origin, is shown to have owed its deposition to causes connected with the revolution and catastrophe before the last general irruption of the waters over our present habitable world. Our author well observes that these posterior geological facts, which have hitherto been neglected by geologists, furnish the only clue by which we may hope, in some measure, to dispel the darkness of the preceding times. 'It would certainly be exceedingly satisfactory to have the fossil organic productions arranged in chronological order, in the same manner as we now have the principal mineral substances. By this the science of organization itself would be improved; the development of animal life; the succession of its forms; the precise determinations of those which have been first called into existence, the simultaneous production of certain species and their gradual extinction; all these would perhaps instruct us fully as much in the essence of organisation as all the experiments that we shall ever be able to make upon living animals: and man, to whom only a short space of time is allotted upon the earth, would have the glory of restoring the history of thousands of ages which preceded the existence of the race, and of thousands of animals which never were contemporaneous with his species.' In the present state of science respecting them we cannot, we conceive, assist the geological student better than by presenting to him an ample classification of existing organic remains. We depend in the first instance largely on the abstract of Cuvier's researches furnished in the notes of Mr. Jameson to M. Kerr's translation of the Essay on the Earth. CLASS I.-MAMMALIA. Cavia. The slaty limestone of Oeningen, Mus, mouse.-In the slaty limestone rocks at Walsch, in the circle of Saatz, Bohemia, there are fossil remains of a species of this tribe nearly allied to the mus terrestris; smaller remains occur in alluvial strata at Kostritz, in Germany, and in the limestone of Corsica. Lagomys.-Occurs in fissures of the third se condary limestone in the rock of Gibraltar and Corsica. It nearly resembles the 1. alpinus of Siberia. Lepus, hare.-Two species occur in fissures of the limestone rocks of Cette; one of them bears a strong resemblance to the common rabbit, the other is one-third less. Family.- Fera Ursus, bear.-2. U. Spelæus.-The size of a horse, and different from any of the present existing species. 2. U. Arctoideus. A smaller species, also extinct. Both species are fossil, and remains of them are found in great abundance in limestone caves in Germany and Hungary. The caves vary much in magnitude and form, and are more or less deeply incrusted with calcareous sinter, which assumes a great variety of singular and often beautiful forms. The bones occur nearly in the same state in all these caves: detached, broken, but never rolled; they are somewhat lighter and less compact than recent bones, but slightly decomposed, contain much gelatine, and are never mineralised. They are generally enveloped in an indurated earth, which contains animal matter; sometimes in a kind of alabaster or calcareous sinter, and by means of this mineral are sometimes attached to the walls of the caves. It is worthy of remark that these bones occur in an extent of upwards of 200 leagues. Cuvier thinks that rather more than threefourths of the bones in the caves of Gaylenreuth, Bavaria, belong to species of bears now extinct; one-half, or two-thirds of the remaining fourth belong to a species of hyaena, which occurs in a fossil state in other situations. A very small number of these remains belong to a species of the genus lion or tiger; and another to animals of the dog or wolf kinds; and, lastly, the smallest portion belongs to different species of smaller carnivorous animals, as the fox and pole-cat. Cuvier is inclined to conjecture that the animals to which they belonged must have lived and died peaceably on the spot where we now find them. This opinion is rendered highly probable from the nature of the earthy matter in which they are enveloped, and which, according to Laugier, contains an intermixture of animal matter with phosphate of lime, and probably also phosphate of iron. Remains of the fossil bear also occur in limestone caves in England. Canis, hyana, and wolf.-Several species occur in the caves already mentioned; one very closely resembles the Cape hyæna, and is about the size of a small brown bear; another species is allied to the dog or wolf; and a third species is almost identical with the common fox. A fossil species also resembling the common fox has been found in the gypsum quarries near Paris; and in the same formation there are fossil remains of a genus intermediate between canis and viverra. Remains of the wolf were found at Cannstadt in Germany, along with those of the elephant, rhinoceros, hyæna, horse, deer, and hare. In the alluvial deposites there are remains of the hyæna. Blumenbach has described the remains of a fossil hyæna, nearly resembling the canis crocuta, which was found in marl along with the remains of the lion and the elephant, between Osterode and Herzberg in Hanover. Professor Buckland's account of the Kirkdale cave of hyænas will be found in our article GREAT BRITAIN, vol. x. p. 596. Bones of hyænas have been found in similar caves in other parts of Great Britain, viz. at Crawly Rocks near Swansea, in the Mendip Hills at Clifton, at Wirksworth in Derbyshire, and at Oreston, near Plymouth. In some of these there is evidence of the bones having been in troduced by beasts of prey; but in that of Hutton Hill, in the Mendips, which contains rolled stones, it is probable they were washed in. Felis, tiger.-One species occurs in the limestone caves of Germany, and appears to be nearly allied to the jaguar; another species, nearly allied to the tiger, is found in alluvial soil along with fossil remains of the elephant, rhinoceros, hyæna, and mastodon. Viverra, weasel.-Two species occur in the German limestone caves; the one is allied to the common pole-cat, and the other to the zorille, a pole-cat belonging to the cape of Good Hope. Another species allied to the ichneumon, but double its size, occurs in the gypsum quarries around Paris. Family.-Bruta. Bradypus, sloth.-Two fossil species have been described, which are nearly allied not only to the two living species, but also to the myrme cophaga, or ant eater. They are the following: 1. Megalonix.-This remarkable fossil animal appears to have been the size of an ox. Its remains were first discovered in limestone caves in Virginia in the year 1796. 2. Megatherium. -This species is the size of the rhinoceros, and its fossil remains have hitherto been found only in South America. The first, and most complete skeleton, was sent from Buenos Ayres by the marquis Loretto, in the year 1789. It was found in digging an alluvial soil, on the banks of the river Luxan, a league south-east of the village of that name, about three leagues W. S. W. of Buenos Ayres. Plate I. fig. 1, REMAINS, ORGANIC, gives a faithful representation of this remarkable skeleton, which is now preserved in the Royal Cabinet of Madrid. A second skeleton of the same animal was sent to Madrid from Liina, in the year 1795; and a third was found in Paraguay. Thus it appears that the remains of this animal exist in the most distant parts of South America. It is very closely allied to the megalonix, and differs from it principally in size, being much larger. Cuvier is of opinion that the two species, the megalonix and megatherium, may be placed together, as members of the same genus, and should be placed between the sloths and ant-eaters, but nearer to the former than to the latter. It is worthy of remark that the remains of these animals have not been hitherto found in any other quarter of the globe besides America, the only existing country which affords hem. Order II.-MARSUPIALIA. Didelphis, opossum.-One species of this exraordinary tribe has been found in a fossil state in the gypsum quarries near Paris. It does not belong to any of the present existing species, and is therefore considered as extinct. Cuvier remarks that, as all the species of this genus are natives of America, it is evident that the hypethesis advanced by some naturalists, of all the fossil organic remains of quadrupeds baving been flooded from Asia to northern countries, is erroneous. Order III-SOLIDUNGULA. Equus adamaticus, equus caballus?—Fossil teeth of a species of horse are found in alluvial soils associated with those of the elephant, rhinoceros, hyæna, mastodon, and tiger? These teeth are larger than those of the present horse, and to all inhabited the countries where they are appearance belong to a different species which found, as Great Britain, along with elephants, rhinoceroses, &c. моп Cervus, deer.-1. Fossil elk of Ireland.—This, the most celebrated of all the fossil ruminating animals, is certainly of a different species from any of those that at present live on the earth's surface, and may therefore be considered as ertinct. It was first found in Ireland, where it ge nerally occurs in shell marl and in peat-bogs. It has also been found in superficial alluvial soil in England, Germany, and France. In plate I. fig. 2, we have given a drawing of the head and horns of this animal. It was dug out of a marl pit at Dardisdoun, near Drogheda, in Ireland. Dr. Molyneux, in the Philosophical Transactions, informs us that its dimensions were as follows: From the extreme tip of each horn . From the tip of the right horn to its root . a. b. From the tip of one of the inner branches to the tip of the opposite branch The length of one of the palms, within the branches The breadth of the palm, within the branches The length of the right brow antler. The beam of each horn at some distance from the head, in diameter in circumference, The beam of each horn, at its root, in circumference. The length of the head, from the back of the skull to the extremity of the upper jaw, Breadth of the skull c. d. e. f. g. h. Ft. In. 10 10 i. k. P. q. 1 0 animal in the summer of 1828 at Knole, the seat We saw a fine specimen of the horns of this of the duke of Dorset. It is exalted among the trophies of the chase in the hall of his grace, but not claiming we suppose to have been hunted by a duke of Dorset. A splendid and nearly perfect skeleton of this animal has been lately dug out of a marl pit in the Isle of Man, and is now preserved in the Regium Museum of Edinburgh. 2. Fossil deer of Scania.-Found in a peat moss in Scania. It appears from the description of the horns to be an extinct, or at least, an unknown species. 3. Fossil deer of Somme.-The horns, the only parts hitherto discovered, show that this animal, although nearly allied to the fallow-deer, must have been much larger than the fallowdeer. The horns occur in loose sand in the valley of Somme in France, and in Germany. 4. Fossil deer of Etampes.-Allied to the reindeer, but much smaller, not exceeding the roe in size. The bones were found in abundance near Etampes in France, imbedded in sand. 5. Fossil roe of Orleans.-Found in the vicinity of Orleans. It occurs in limestone, along with bones of the palæotherium. It is the only instance known of the remains of a living species having been found along with those of extinct species. But Cuvier enquires, May not the bones belong to a species of roe, of which the distinctive characters lie in parts hitherto undiscovered? 6. Fossil roe of Somme.-Very nearly allied to the roe. Found in the peat of Somme. 7. Fossil red deer or stag.-Resembling the red deer or stag. Its horns are found in peatbogs, or sand pits in Scotland, England, France, Germany, and Italy. 8. Fossil fallow deer.-Found in peat-bogs and marl pits in Scotland and France. Bos, ox.-1. Aurochs.-Cuvier considers this as distinct from the common ox, and it differs from the present varieties in being larger. Skulls and horns of this species have been found in alluvial soil in England, Scotland, France, Germany, and America. 2. Common ox.-The skulls of this species also differ from those of the present existing races, in being larger, and the direction of the horns being different. They occur in alluvial soil in many different parts of Europe, and are considered by Cuvier as belonging to the original race of the present domestic ox. 3. Large buffalo of Siberia. The skull of this animal is of great size, and appears to belong to a species not at present known. It is not the common buffalo, nor can it be identified with the large buffalo of India, named arnee. Cuvier conjectures that it must have lived at the same time with the fossil elephant and rhinoceros, in the frozen regions of Siberia. 4. Fossil ox, resembling the musk or of America. More nearly resembling the American musk ox than any other species, and have hitherto been found only in Siberia. These fossil remains of deer and oxen may be distinguished into two classes, the unknown and the known ruminants. In the first class Cuvier places the Irish elk, the small deer of Etampes, the stag of Scania, and the great buffalo of Siberia; in the second class he places the common stag, the common roe-buck, the fallow deer, the aurochs, the ox which seems to have been the original of the domestic ox, the buffalo with approximated horns, which appears to be analogous to the musk ox of Canada; and there remains a dubious species, the great deer of Somme, which much resembles the common fallow-deer. 'From what has been ascertained in regard to the strata,' says Mr. Jameson, in which these remains have been found, it would appear that the known species are contained in newer beds than the unknown. Further, that the fossil remains of the known species are those of animals of the climate where they are now found: thus the stag, ox, aurochs, roe-deer, fallow deer, now dwell, and have always dwelt, in cold countries; whereas the species which are regarded as unknown appear to be analogous to those of warm countries: thus the great buffalo of Siberia can only be compared with the buffalo of India, the arnee. M. Cuvier concludes that the facts hitherto collected seem to announce, at least as plainly as such imperfect documents can, that the two sorts of fossil ruminants belong to two orders of alluvial deposites, and consequently to two different geological epochas; that the one have been, and are now, daily becoming enveloped in alluvial matter; whereas, the others have been the victims of the same revolution which destroyed the other species of the alluvial strata; such as mammoths, mastodons, and all the multungula, the genera of which now exist only in the torrid zone. Order V.-MULTUNGULA. Rhinoceros antiquitatis.—Only one fossil species has hitherto been discovered, which differs from the five living species, not only in structure, but in geographical distribution. It was first noticed in the time of Grew, in alluvial soil near Canterbury. Sir E. Hone describes, in the Philosophical Transactions for 1817, a nearly perfect head of this species, which was found in a cave in limestone, near Plymouth. Similar remains have been found in many places of Germany, France, and Italy. In Siberia, not only single bones and skulls, but the whole animal, with the flesh and skin, have been discovered. Hippopotamus.-Two fossil species have been ascertained by Cuvier. The one, which is the largest, is so very nearly allied to the species at present living on the surface of the earth, that it is difficult to determine whether or no it is not the same. Its fossil remains have been found in alluvial soil in France and Italy. The second fossil species, and the smallest, not being larger than a hog, is well characterised, and is entirely different from any of the existing species of quadrupeds. Tapir.-The tapir, until lately, was considered as an animal peculiar to the new world, and confined to South America; but the recent discovery of a new species in Sumatra proves that it also occurs in the old world. Two fossil species of this genus have been discovered in Europe. The one is named the small, the other the gigantic tapir, and both have been found in different parts of France, Germany, and Italy. Elephas jubatus, or primigenus, elephant or mammoth. Of this genus two species are at present known as inhabitants of the earth. The one, which is confined to Africa, is named the African elephant; the other, which is a native of Asia, is named the Asiatic elephant. Only one fossil species has hitherto been discovered. It is the mammoth of the Russians. It differs from both the existing species, but agrees more nearly with the Asiatic than the African species. It appears to have been clothed in fur, and provided with a mane. Its bones have been found in many different parts of this island; as in the alluvial soil around Loudon, in the county of Northampton, at Gloucester, at Trenton, near Stafford, near Harwich, at Norwich, in the island of Sheppy, in the river Medway, in Salisbury Plain, and in Flintshire in Wales; and similar remains have been dug up in the north of Ireland. Bones of this animal have been dug up in Sweden, and Cuvier conjectures that the bones of supposed giants, mentioned by the celebrated bishop Pontoppidan as having been found in Norway, are remains of the fossil elephant. Torfæus mentions a head and tooth of this animal dug up in the island of Iceland. In Russia, in Europe, Poland, Germany, France, Holland, and Hungary, teeth and bones of this species of elephant have been found in abundance. Humboldt found teeth of this animal in North and South America. But it is in Asiatic Russia that they occur in greatest abundance. Pallas says, that from the Don or the Tanais to Tichutskoinoss, there is scarcely a river the bank of which does not afford remains of the mammoth; and these are frequently imbedded in, or covered with alluvial soil containing marine productions. The bones are generally dispersed, seldom occuring in complete skeletons, and still more rarely do we find the fleshy part of the animal preserved. One of the most interesting instances on record of the preservation of the carcase of this animal is thus given by M. Cu vier : In the year 1799, a Tungusian fisherman observed a strange shapeless mass projecting from an ice-bank, near the mouth of a river in the north of Siberia, the nature of which he did not understand, and which was so high in the bank as to be beyond his reach. He next year observed the same object, which was then rather more disengaged from among the ice, but was still unable to conceive what it was. Towards the end of the following summer, 1801, he could distinctly see that it was the frozen carcase of an enormous animal, the entire flank of which, and one of its tusks, had become disengaged from the ice. In consequence of the ice beginning to melt earlier, and to a greater degree than usual in 1803, the fifth year of this discovery, the enormous carcase became entirely disengaged, and fell dow from the ice craig on a sand-bank forming part of the coast of the Arctic Ocean. In the month of March of that year the Tungusian carried away the two tusks, which he sold for the value of fifty rubles; and at this time a drawing was made of the animal of which I possess a copy. Two years afterwards, or in 1806, Mr. Adams went to examine this animal, which still remained on the sand bank where it had fallen from the ice, but its body was then greatly mutilated. The Jukuts of the neighbourhood had taken away considerable quantities of its flesh to feed their dogs; and the wild animals, particularly the white bears, had also feasted on the carcase; yet the skeleton remained quite entire, except that one of the fore legs was gone. The entire spine, the pelvis, one shoulder-blade, and three legs, were still held together by their ligaments, and by some remains of the skin; and the other shoulder-blade was found at a short distance. The head remained, covered by the dried skin, and the pupil of the eye was still distinguishable. The brain also remained within the skull, but a good deal shrunk and dried up; and one of the ears was in excellent preservation, still retaining a tuft of strong bristly hair. The upper lip was a good deal eaten away, and the under lip was entirely gone, so that the teeth were distinctly seen. The animal was a male, and had a long mane on its neck. 'The skin was extremely thick and heavy, and as much of it remained as required the exertions of ten men to carry away, which they did with considerable difficulty. More than thirty pounds weight of the hair and bristles of this animal were gathered from the wet sandbank, having been trampled into the mud by the white bears while devouring the carcase. Some of the hair was presented to our Museum of Natural History by M. Targe, censor in the Lyceum of Charlemagne. It consists of three distinct kinds. One of these is stiff black bristles, a foot or more in length; another is thinner bristles, or coarse flexible hair, of a reddishbrown color; and the third is a coarse reddishbrown wool, which grew among the roots of the long hair. These afford an undeniable proof that this animal had belonged to a race of elephants inhabiting a cold region, with which we are now unacquainted, and by no means fitted to dwell in the torrid zone. It is also evident that this enormous animal must have been frozen up by the ice at the moment of its death. Mr. Adams, who bestowed the utmost care in collecting all the parts of this animal, proposes to publish an exact account of its osteology, which must be an exceedingly valuable present to the philosophical world. In the mean time, from the drawing I have now before me, I have every reason to believe that the sockets of the teeth of this northern elephant have the same proportional lengths with those of other fossil elephants, of which the entire skulls have been found in other places.' Sus proavitus, hog.-Only single bones and teeth of this tribe have been hitherto met with; some of these appear to belong to the sus scrofa, or common hog; while others are of a dubious nature. They are found in loam, along with the remains of the elephant and rhinoceros, and even imbedded in peat mosses. MASTODON. Mammoth of Blumenbach.—This is entirely a fossil genus, no living species hav ing hitherto been discovered in any part of the world. It is more nearly allied to the elephant than to any other animal of the present creation; it appears to have been an herbivorous animal; and the largest species, the great mastodon of Cuvier, was equal in size to the elephant. Five species are described by Cuvier. 1. Great mastodon, mammoth ohioticum of Blumenbach. This species has been hitherto found in greatest abundance in North America, near the river Ohio, and remains of it have been dug up |