his extensive genius, and the important transactions that were carried on during his administration, but also by the various and useful productions with which he enriched the republic of letters. He, however, deplored the mistaken law which compelled the clergy to celibacy, and the intolerable consequences to human happiness and virtue arising from its enactment. The genius and learning of Æneas Sylvius would have shed a lustre over the age which gave him birth, had they continued to be employed in the sphere in which they had at first acquired for him celebrity. In his character of ambassador from the Roman see to different potentates, he acquired the credit of a diplomatist; but it was by his advocacy of the rights and privileges of general councils, and his opposition to papal encroachment and usurpation that he rendered his name illustrious. As secretary to the council of Basil, he was the boast of literature; but, as if he had changed his nature with his name, he disgraced it as Pius II. No longer was his voice raised to elevate the council above the pope, but to recommend blind submission to his authority. It would appear that he gloried in his inconsistency, since he even went so far as to procure a partial repeal of the Pragmatic sanction from the French monarch, which had been solely instituted with the design of curtailing the power of the pope within the Gallican territory; and published, in his pontifical capacity, a solemn retractation in the year 1463 of his defence of the council of Basil.

To Pius succeeded Paul II., of whose pontificate history relates nothing worthy of record. His successor Sixtus IV. was the instigator of a conspiracy to assassinate Giuliano and Lorenzo de Medici, and to change the government of Florence. The assassination was to take place in the principal church, where a cardinal legate was present, and the signal for it was to be the elevation of the host: Giuliano was killed on the spot; Lorenzo was wounded by two priests, who had undertaken his murder, but escaped; the archbishop of Pisa, who in the mean time had attempted to overpower the magistrates and possess himself of the seat of government, failed in his attempt, and was hung in his pontifical robes from one of the windows of the palace. For this act of justice Sixtus excommunicated Lorenzo, and the magistrates of Florence. The bull issued on this occasion has been justly designated one of the most extraordinary specimens of priestly arrogance, that ever insulted the common sense of mankind. Alexander VI., a Spaniard by birth, whose name was Roderic Borgia, succeeded in 1492 to the papal chair. The life and actions of this man show that there was a Nero among the popes, as well as among the emperors. The crimes and enormities that history has imputed to him exhibit him as not only destitute of religious and virtuous principles, but even regardless of decency. By Vanazza, a Roman lady, with whom he had continued an illicit connexion for many years, he had five children: his second son was Cæsar Borgia, a monster of debauchery and cruelty, who is said to have quarreiled with his elder brother for the favors of his sister Lucretia, and to have killed him and thrown his

body into the Tiber. Notwithstanding his infamous character he was the favorite of his father, who trampled with contempt on every obstacle which the demands of justice, the dictates of reason, and the remonstrances of religion laid in his way, in order to aggrandise his family. The profligate career of this execrable hypocrite and tyrant was continued till the year 1503, when the prison which he and his son Cæsar had prepared for others, and particularly for Adrian, a wealthy cardinal, who stood in the way of their avarice and ambition, by a happy mistake, terminated his own days. See BORGIA.

On the death of Alexander, Pius III. occupied the papal throne for only one month; at whose decease the vacant chair was obtained, through fraud and bribery, by Julian De la Rovere, who assumed the denomination of Julius II. To the odious list of vices with which he dishonored the pontificate we may add the most extravagant and frenetic passion for war and bloodshed. He began his military enterprises by entering into a war with the Venetians, after having strengthened his cause by an alliance with the emperor and the king of France. His whole pontificate, in short, was one continued scene of military tumult; nor did he ever suffer Europe to enjoy a moment's tranquillity as long as he lived; fortunately death carried off this audacious pontiff in 1512, in the midst of his ambitious and vindictive projects.

Leo X., of the family of Medicis, ascended the papal throne after the death of Julius. He was a protector of men of learning, and was himself learned as far as the darkness of the age would admit; but wholly indifferent to religion: his time being divided between conversation with men of letters, and the pursuit of pleasure. He had an invincible aversion, we are told, to whatever was accompanied with solitude and care, and was remarkable for his prodigality. He did not, however, lose sight of the grand object which the generality of his predecessors had so much at heart-that of promoting the opulence of the Roman see; for he took the utmost care that nothing should be transacted in the Lateran council (which Julius had assembled and left sitting) that had the least tendency to favor the reformation of the church. He went still farther; and in a conference which he had with Francis I., king of France, at Bologna, engaged that monarch to abrogate the Pragmatic sanction which had been so long odious to the popes, and to substitute, in its place, another body of laws under the title of the Concordat.

It was in the reign of Leo X. that those events transpired which form an era in the history of the Romish church, and indeed in the annals of the world, resulting in the Protestant REFORMATION. For some time there had been a season of comparative tranquillity, and the pontiffs thought themselves thoroughly confirmed in their assumption of power. We must not, however, conclude from this apparent tranquillity and security, that their measures were unanimously applauded, or that their chains were worn without reluctance; for, not only private persons, but also the most powerful princes and sovereign states exclaimed loudly against the despotic dominion

Vandals, or Goths, in the fifth and sixth centuries. The booty, in ready money alone, amounted to 1,000,000 of ducats. Clement, who had shut himself up in the castle of St. Angelo, being deprived of every resource, and reduced to such extremity of famine as to feed on asses' flesh, was obliged to capitulate on such conditions as the conquerors were pleased to prescribe. He agreed to pay 400,000 ducats to the army; to surrender to the emperor all the places of strength belonging to the church; and, besides giving hostages, remaining a prisoner himself until the chief articles were performed. At length, however, the progress of the confederates in Italy and other political considerations, induced the emperor to concert measures for setting the pope at liberty, on consideration of his allowing 100,000 crowns for the use of the army, paying the same sum at the distance of a fortnight, and at the end of three months 150,000 more.

During a period of six years, Henry VIII. of England had been suing the court of Rome for a divorce from Catharine of Arragon; but the pope negociated, promised, retracted, and concluded nothing. Cranmer's sentence at length annulled the king's marriage with Catharine; her daughter was declared illegitimate, and Ann Boleyn acknowledged queen of England. Clement, who had already seen so many provinces and kingdoms revolt from the holy see, became apprehensive lest England should follow their example, and determined to give Henry such satisfaction as might still retain him within the bosom of the church. But the violence of the cardinals, devoted to the emperor, hurried him with a fatal precipitation to issue a bull rescinding Cranmer's sentence, enforcing Henry's marriage with Catharine, and declaring him excommunicated, if, within a time specified, he did not return to her. Henry was enraged; the resistance he met with in the accomplishment of his wishes from the court of Rome led him to question its jurisdiction; and the more this was examined the weaker it appeared. From this to question its discipline and doctrines was only another step, and the nation was prepared for it. An act of parliament was therefore passed, abolishing the papal power and jurisdiction in England. By another act the king was declared supreme head of the church, and all the authority of which the popes were deprived was vested in him. The successes that had attended the allies in their opposition to Clement inspired with new vigour and resolution all the friends of the reformation. Soon after his sentence on Henry, Clement fell into a languishing distemper, which closed his pontificate, after a duration of ten years and ten months, on the 25th of September, 1534. He was succeeded by Alexander Farnese, who assumed the name of Paul III., and whose first object was to crush the progress of the reformation. He was, like his predecessor, enraged at the innovations in Germany, and equally averse from any scheme for reform, either in the doctrines of the church, or the abuses of the papal court. In 1538 he issued his bull of excommunication against Henry VIII. of England, and required all Christian princes, whatever had been their oaths, to render no assistance to Henry.

The year 1540 was rendered memorable by the establishment of the order of the Jesuits. These new soldiers of the church did every thing which could be hoped for from human powers, directed by the most profound zeal, prudence, perseverance, and genius. They soon obtained possession of courts, of nations, of confessions, of pupils, of the education of youth, of missions. Nothing appeared to them impossible in extending the dominion of the holy see to places where it did not exist, or in consolidating it where it was maintained. Represented as ambitious, fomenters of trouble, corrupt men, and even as rebels, by their adversaries, they opposed the stoical severity of their lives, their zeal, and services to the Roman see, and their studious austerity, to these accusations. In a few years the society established itself in every Catholic country; and, acquiring prodigious wealth, soon be came the confessors of almost every Catholic prince, and the spiritual guides of nearly every person of rank or influence.

The church and court of Rome, since the remarkable period when so many kingdoms and provinces withdrew from their jurisdiction, have perhaps derived more influence and support from the labours of this single order than from all their other emissaries and ministers. About this time the pope, finding it impossible to avoid any longer calling a general council, sent John Morone, bishop of Modena, to announce to the diet of the empire at Spires his determination of assembling such a council, and published a bull, nominating three cardinals to preside as his legates. These legates repaired to Trent, on the 1st of November, 1542, where they remained several months; but, as no other persons appeared there except a few prelates from the ecclesiastical states, the pope recalled them and prorogued the council. On the 13th of December, 1545, the council was again opened at Trent; though as yet only twenty-five bishops had arrived, and these were Italians or Spaniards. The council showed great eagerness in condemning the opinions of the Protestants; but it was soon after dissolved. In this council, protracted through many years, the church of Rome increased, in the view of Protestants, instead of diminishing, every acknowledged evil. Nothing was altered; no error retracted; no compliance with the popular demand for reformation was made. This was the issue and aim of the Trent reformation,' remarks Richerus, ' that no respect should be had to truth, but to show and outward pomp only; and that all things should be referred to the splendor and profit of the Roman court.'

As the pope advanced in years he grew more strongly attached to his family, and more jealous of his authority; but, in the midst of the schemes for the aggrandisement of the latter, he died A. D. 1549, in the eighty-second year of his age, and after he had held the Roman see more than fifteen years. He was succeeded by Julius III., formerly known as John Maria Del Monte. One of his first acts gave great offence to every decent person; he conferred a cardinal's hat, with ample ecclesiastical revenues, upon a youth of sixteen, born of obscure parents, and known

by the name of Ape, from his having been entrusted with the care of an animal of that species in the cardinal Del Monte's family. When Julius was reproached by the cardinals for introducing such an unworthy member into the sacred college, a person who had neither learning, nor virtue, nor merit of any kind, he imprudently replied, by asking them, 'What virtue or merit they had found in him that could induce them to place him (Julius) in the papal chair?' Having also one day ordered a cold peacock for his supper, and not perceiving it on the table, he expressed his anger in a most horrible blasphemy. One of his cardinals remonstrating with his holiness on the violence of his passion, his reply was, If God could be so very angry about an apple, as to turn our first father out of paradise, why should it not be lawful for me, who am his vicar, to be in a passion for a peacock?' The subsequent conduct of Julius corresponded with his shameless behaviour at the commencement of his pontificate; and he died, lamented by none, in 1555, having held the papal see about five years. His successor was Marcellus II., who died within a month of his consecration.

Cardinal Caraffa, who took the name of Paul IV., was the next occupant of the papal throne. The Roman courtiers, from the known austerity of his character, anticipated a severe and violent pontificate. Paul, however, began his government by ordering his coronation to be conducted with greater pomp and ceremony than usual, and, when he was asked in what manner he chose to live, he haughtily replied, as becomes a great prince.' He used great pomp in his first consistory, when he allowed audience to the ambassadors of Mary, queen of England, who came to tender her obedience to the papal see, on which occasion he gave the title of a kingdom to Ireland. He maintained, with undiminished rigor, the pretensions of the church of Rome. When Sir Edward Rarne notified the accession of Elizabeth to this pope, he answered that England was held in fee of the apostolic see-that the queen could not succeed, being illegitimate-and that she was presumptuous, in assuming the crown; but that if she renounced her pretensions and, submitted her case entirely to him, he would do every thing, which, without his consent, could not be done consistently. He never talked,' says Father Paul, with ambassadors, without thundering in their ears that he was superior to all princes; that he would admit none of them ou a footing of familiarity with himself; that it was in his power to change kingdoms, and that he was the successor of those who deposed kings and emperors.' Paul finally perfectly organized the inquisition.

Shortly after the pope was very desirous of convincing the world that he had sincerely at heart a correction of abuses; and with this view ordered all bishops to proceed to their own dioceses, and all who had embraced a monastic life to return to their monasteries. It was now almost too late, however, to act upon a new course of practice, and Paul was unable to remedy these evils, as he died in August 1559 in the eighty-fourth year of his age, after a pontifi

cate of little more than four years. Pius IV., whose original name was John Angelo Di Medici, was chosen to succeed Paul, after a delay of more than four months. Soon after his accession he despatched a nuncio to England with secret instructions and a conciliatory letter; offering to annul the sentence against the marriage of Elizabeth's mother, to allow the use of the cup to the English, and to confirm the English liturgy: but Elizabeth had already decided on her course; and the nuncio was informed that he could not be permitted to set foot in England. Pius now issued a bull for reassembling of the council at Trent, which met in January 1562. Attempts were soon made to abridge the authority of the pope, which created in his holiness perpetual anxiety, and he was on the point of suddenly dissolving the assembly. In 1563 it was brought to an end, but not until decrees were passed, designed as an acknowledgment of the subordina tion of the council to the holy see. formation of the dissolution of the council was brought to Pius, he received it with great joy, and ordained a solemn thanksgiving on the occasion; and, in a very short time, he published a bull of confirmation, requiring all the prelates and princes to receive and enforce the decrees of the council, prohibiting persons from writing any explication or commentary of them; and commanding the catholics every where to have recourse, in all doubtful cases, to the apostolic

see.

When in

Pius IV. died in 1565, in the sixty-seventh year of his age, and after a pontificate of nearly six years. The news of the fact was received, it is said, with great joy by the Roman people on account of the severity and oppression of his goverment. His successor was cardinal Ghislieri, who took the title of Pius V., early displayed great zeal and diligence in promoting a reformation in the manner and morals of all ranks. He exhibited, however, a furious zeal against the Protestants, by persecuting them with the same savage severity which rendered him odious in his former character of inquisitor. He also incited Philip II. to attempt by war and massacre their extermination; and induced him to intrust the expedition designed for this purpose to the ferocious duke of Alva. In 1568 Pius published his famous bull, entitled In Canâ Domini, which it was usual to publish at Rome on Maundy Thursday every year, till it was suppressed by pope Clement XIV. By this bull anathemas were pronounced against such persons as should appeal to general councils from the decrees of the popes; and against those princes who should impose restraints on ecclesiastical jurisdiction or exact contributions from the clergy. It was, however, never received in any kingdom out of Italy. He also issued a bull of excommunication against Elizabeth, queen of England, absolving her subjects from their allegiance. declare her, out of the fulness of the apostolic power, to be a heretic, and a favorer of heretics: he said, we moreover declare her to be deprived of her pretended title to the kingdom aforesaid, and of all dominion, dignity, and privilege whatsoever; and also the nobility, subjects, and people of the said kingdom, and all who have in

We

any sort sworn unto her, to be for ever absolved from every such oath, and all manner of duty, of dominion, allegiance, and obedience. We also command and interdict all and every the noblemen, subjects, and people aforesaid that they presume not to obey her, or her monitions, mandates, and laws; and those who shall do to the contrary we do likewise anathematize.' (See Butler's Mem. 1. 187). Pius was carried off by an attack of the stone in 1572, when he was about the age of sixty-eight, after a pontificate of little more than six years.

Gregory XIII. was unanimously elected his successor. It was during this pontificate that the massacre of the Protestants at Paris took place. See REFORMATION: 60,000 Protestants, according to Sully, fell in this awful massacre; and that it did not extend to the extermination of every individual, was, under divine providence, to be attributed to the caution of some who left the capital in time, the intrepidity of others, and the generous feeling of many of the Catholic officers, who refused to obey commands which they said belonged rather to executioners than to soldiers. This deed of blood was as assuredly approved by the pope as it was executed by the mandate of his priests. It was celebrated as an act of religion at Rome, and justified as a holy deed by the partisans of Rome. The solemn thanksgiving made was accompanied with a jubilee to all Christendom; for which one of the reasons was that they should thank God for the slaughter of the enemies of the church lately executed in France. In the oration of Muretus, pronounced in the presence of the supreme pontiff, Gregory XIII., that memorable night, in which this accursed slaughter was committed, is blessed. The king, the queen, and the royal family are extolled for their share in the transaction, and the pope himself is styled most blessed Father for going in procession, to return thanks to God and St. Louis for the welcome news when brought to him. After the death of Gregory, in 1585, the papal chair was filled by Sixtus V. (Felix Peretti Di Montalto), who in pride, magnificence, intrepedity, strength of mind, and in other great virtues and vices, surpassed most of his predecessors. It had been usual, for the sake of acquiring popularity, on the election of a new pope, to set the imprisoned criminals at liberty; but the first act of Sixtus was to order four persons to be hanged, on whom were found, a few days before, prohibited weapons. This system of rigor he pursued with the most inexorable severity, never, in a single instance, pardoning a criminal. Instead of censuring the assassination of Henry III., King of Navarre, by the dominican Clement, Sixtus commended and approved of the action in a long, public, and official oration. That a monk had slain a king in the midst of his people he considered Rarum insigne et memorabile facinus. Facinus non sine Dei optimi maximi particulari providentia, et dispositione.' And then he goes on to say that it was not only done with the special providence and appointment of God, but by the suggestions and assistance of his Holy Spirit; a greater work than Judith's slaying Holofernes. In 1588 Philip equipped his invincible armada;

and Sixtus seconded the enterprise with all his spiritual authority. He renewed the bulls of Pius and Gregory against Elizabeth; and once more excommunicated and absolved her subjects from their allegiance. This celebrated pontiff died in August 1590, having reigned five years and four months. The rigor of his administration, his improvement of the city of Rome, the vast treasures he accumulated, his foundation of the Vatican library, and his fixing the aumber of cardinals at seventy, have all contributed to gain him immortal reputation, and have thrown great splendor about his name. Though we cannot look upon him as the model of a great prince, and much less of an irreproachable prelate, yet was his life and administration distinguished by many noble acts, particularly in his encouragement of sacred literature. In 1590 Sixtus published an edition of the Latin Vulgate, which by a bull he commanded should be received every where, and in all cases for true, legitimate, authentic, and undoubted; and that all future editions should be made conformable to this, not the least syllable being changed, added, or omitted, on pain of the greater excommunication. Notwithstanding this denunciation, however, Clement VIII., not very long after, revoked the decree of Sixtus, suppressed his edition, and published another of his own, in which he made more than 2000 corrections.

In 1592 the papal chair was filled by Hippolito Aldobrandini, under the name of Clement VIII. Clement yielded to none of his predecessors in zeal for the extension of the Romish faith; in this spirit he prepared the oath to be taken by the bishops and archbishops, which contains the words 'jura, honores, privilegia, et auctoritatem, Rom. ecclesiæ, domini nostri Papæ et successorum, conservare, defendere, augere, promovere curatio; Hereticos, schismaticos, et rebelles eidem domini nostro, pro posse persequar.' (Pont. Rom. Clem. VIII. Antwerp 1627, p. 59). In 1600 Clement issued a bull to prevent James I. from ascending the throne of England, declaring that when it should happen that that miserable woman (queen Elizabeth) should die, they (her subjects) should admit none to the crown, though ever so nearly allied to it by blood, except they would not only tolerate the Catholic religion, but promote it to the utmost of their power, and would, according to ancient custom, undertake upon oath to perform the same.' He was succeeded in the year 1605 by Leo XI. of the house of Medicis, who died a few weeks after his election, and thus left the papal chair open to Camillo Borghese, by whom it was filled under the denomination of Paul V. No one of his predecessors exceeded this pontiff in zeal for advancing the ecclesiastical authority, or showed himself more violent in endeavouring to execute his vengeance upon such as encroached upon his prerogative. Paul died at Rome in January 1621, in the sixty-ninth year of his age, after a pontificate of nearly sixteen years. Gregory XV., who was raised to the pontificate in 1621, seemed to be of a milder disposition, though he was not less defective in equity and clemency towards those who had separated themselves from the church. This pope instituted the fa