improperly called, the four elements; what is all this, when coinpared with the progrefs which was afterwards made by the Arabian philofophers, and with the important difcoveries of modern times, in this branch of science? In inveftigating the powers, and afcertaining the laws, of nature, that is, in the fcience ftrictly called Natural Philofophy, the fuperiority of the moderns over the ancients is incontrovertible. It is a well-known fact, that they were either unacquainted with, or defpiied, the orly method by which this branch of knowledge can be profecuted with fuccefs, that of experiment. Inftead of obferving in what manner effects were produced, by attentively comparing them with the circumftances by which they are immediately preceded, they amufed themfelves with framing and propagating a great variety of fanciful hypothefes on phyfical fubjects. Hence, in the midft of all their refined fpeculations, their knowledge of nature remained fo exceedingly imperfect, that they may juttly be confidered, in comparifon with the moderns, as children in philofophy. With refpect, particularly, to aftronomy, if, as many have afferted, the Chaldeans were the first people among whom this fcience appeared, their knowledge of it probably went no farther than a feries of rude and inaccurate obfervations on celeftial phenomena. It reflects little honour on the fe fathers of aftronomy, that they were alfo the inventors of judicial aftrology, a vain and fuperftitious art, which Kepler justly calls the foolih daughter of a wife mother." The Egyptians appear to have firft difcovered the zodiac, and to have divided it into twelve figns, and, confequently, their year into twelve months; but it is a certain proof that their aftronomical obfervations were not very accurate, that they were long unable to difcover the true length of the year, and were, for feveral ages, contented with a year of 360 days. Before the time of Herodotus, they had difcovered the neceffity of introducing five intercalary days; but it was not till about the time that Plato and Eudoxus travelied into Egypt, that a still remaining deficiency of fix hours was perceived, in their computation of the folar year. The firft rudiments of Grecian aftronomy were certainly borrowed from the Egyptians; and Thaies, who was inftructed in Egypt, has been celebrated for predicting an eclipfe; but there is no proof that his prediction amounted to any thing like an exact calculation of the time of its appearance. Of the accuracy of their ideas, concerning the magnitude of the heavenly bodies, we may judge from what has been related concerning fome of the Grecian philofophers. Anaximander is faid to have taught, that the fun is twenty-eight times larger than the earth; Anaximenes, that the fun and moon are fiery bodies, whofe form is that of a circular plate; that the flars are fixed in the heavens, as nails in a cryftalline plane; and that the earth is a plain tablet, refting upon air. Anaxagoras fays, that the fun is a flat circular mafs of hot iron, fomewhat bigger than the Peloponnefus; Xenophanes, that the ftars are fiery vapours, extinguished by day and ignited by night, and the fun a mais of fiery vapour daily renewed; and Heraclitus, that the heavenly bodies are in the form of boats, having the hollow fide to us, and becoming luminous, when certain fiery exhalations from the earth are collected within them. If thete tales fhould be thought too abfurd to cbtain credit, even upon the authority of Plutarch, and Diogenes Laertius, it muft, at leaft, be owned, that we find few traces of any knowledge of aftronomy, which could be properly called fcientific, till Egypt, after the conqueft of Alexander, came under the government of the Ptolemies. Then, it will be acknowledged, aftronomy made a rapid progrefs. names of Hipparchus and Ptolemy will always be celebrated among aftronomers. But, after all, what were their advances in this fcience, compared with thofe of Galileo, Kepler, Tycho Brahe, Copernicus, and Newton It is evident, that the ancients, in comparison with the moderns, muft have been very imperfectly acquainted with aftronomy, if it be confidered how extremely deficient they were in inftruments for experiments and obfervations, and in the method of abridging laborious calculations. Without a te cfcope, without the pendulum, without numerical figures, without logarithms, a gebra, or fluxions, how cumbrous and operofe muft their aftronomical calcula tions have been ! The That other fciences, as well as aftronomy, have been continually improving, might be eafily fhown. Nor will it be difputed, that there has been a fimilar progrefs in the Arts. Those arts which furnish the primary neceffaries and conveniences of life, were doubtless invented in the firft ftages of civilization. When men began to form themselves 1796.] The Enquirer. No. X. into fociety, they foon learned to provide themselves, by means of manual operations, with food, clothing, habitation, and weapons of defence. But these arts were rude attempts, which a long courfe or experience enabled them to improve: and even after improvements have from time to time been made in the ufeful arts, room has still been left for farther advances. This fufficiently appears from the prefent ftate of manufactures; in which it is impoffible to doubt, that innumerable articles of utility and convenience are produced, which were either wholly unknown to the ancients, or executed in a much lefs perfect manner. The increafe of knowledge in mechanics and chemistry, has been a vaft increafe of power, which has enabled the moderns to carry their manufactures to a degree of perfection, to execute them with a degree of facility, and to circulate them to a degree of extent, not to be paralleled in ancient times. The machines for abridging labour, which modern ingenuity has introduced into almoft every branch of manufacture, have enabled men to mul tiply the fupplies of human wants beyond every thing that could formerly have been attempted. Chemistry has been applied to the improvement of the arts in a thousand ways altogether new; and the mathematics have lent their aid in all cafes to which they could be ufefully applied. Whilft almoft every old art has been in this manner materially improved, new arts have been introduced, among which may be mentioned, printing, as beyond all comparifon the moft ufeful and important invention of modern times. The general ftock of convenience and enjoyment is thus perpetually increating by the advancement of fcience or the improvement of the arts, without any thing to place on the oppofite fide of the account; for there is no fufficient ground to fuppofe that any one valuable art, or ufeful branch of fcience has ever been wholly loft. The pretended inftances of loft aris given in Pancirollas's work on this fubject, are either manifeftly falfe or fabulous, or fuch trifles as have fallen into difufe through their inutility. Where any art has been loft, it has commonly been either fuperfeded by fomne more eafy and commodious invention, or has become fuperfluous through a change of man ners. Enough has now been faid to prove, that science and arts are progreffive. If this be admitted, it neceffarily follows, that mankind are advancing in their ca 873 pacity of happiness; for it will not be difputed, that knowledge is power, or that, in proportion as men increase in their acquaintance with nature, and in kill to apply its laws to the various purpofes of life, they multiply their means of health, fecurity, and enjoyment. But, in order to prove that mankind are actually advancing towards perfection, it is not only neceffary to fhow that their ftock of materials, out of which the web of happinefs may be woven, is continually increafing, but that they are improving, and likely ftill farther to improve, in that moral and political wisdom which conftitutes the practical art of bappiness. In order to complete the proof of the point before us, it must be shown that men are advancing in the difpofition, as well as the capacity, to enjoy life individually, and to contribute to the common profperity and felicity of the fpecies. Without moral and political wifdom, the external materials of happiness are only fo many diamonds thrown upon a dunghill to be trampled upon by fwine. The hiftory of mankind proves, that fomething has already been done towards their moral and political amelioration. The paffions of men have been restrained by civil law, by the forms of politeness, and by religious principles. War has been rendered lefs deftructive, and the glorious idea has been formed, of banishing it entirely from the earth. Humanity and beneficence have been exercifed in a degree unknown among the ancients; and the narrow principle of exclufive patriotiim has begun to be abforbed in the generous fentiment of univerfal philanthropy. More correct and enlarged ideas than were conceived by the ancients, of the nature and ends of civil fociety, of the origin of all civil power, and of the method of conducting public affairs, have been conceived, diffeminated among the people, and, in part, already carried into effect. The true doctrine concerning the equal rights of men has been better underitood, and more generally diffufed. In confequence of this, the combination among the higher ranks of men to opprefs the lower, been fhaken; flavery has become odious; a free intercourfe has been opened among men of all defcriptions; and a general attention has been awakened to the interefts, the rights, and the comforts of the labouring part of mankind. has Thele things clearly indicate, in the prefent time, an advance towards perfection. It is true the progrefs of moral and and political wifdom has hitherto been flow, because it has been retarded by many adventitious circumftances. The rich and powerful, miftaking their own true intereft, and too often indifferent to that of fociety, have ftrenuously oppofed innovation: the governors and the governed in a ftate have been fuppofed to have feparate interefts: power has been confounded with right: erroneous notions have prevailed concerning perfonal happines: perfonal manners have been guided by the deluding meteor of fathien, rather than by the fteady light of reafon; and religion itself, which ought to have been infeparably leagued with morality, having been affociated with fuperftition, and having entered. into an unnatural alliance with arbitrary power, has often occafioned the very mifchiefs which it was intended to remove. From thefe and other fimilar caufes, it must be confeffed, that mankind have, in fact, made much lefs progrefs in practical wifdom, than might have been expected; and, to own the truth, after all that experience and inftruction have hitherto been able to effect, human nature, in this important refpect, is ftill in a ftate of childhood, the dupe of paffion and fancy, rather than the pupil of reafon and truth. But it is impoffible that it fhould always remain in this ftate; its progrefs to manhood, though flow, is, nevertheless, certain. Its minority, whatever be its duration, will at length be terminated; and mankind,attaining their ma turity, will put away childith things." This progrefs is the gradual, but fure work of experience. All the mifconceptions which at prefent feduce mankind, and are the fource of their follies and mi feries, experience may, and, in due courfe of time, muft correct. By means of the numerous opportunities which the art of printing affords for circulating knowledge of every kind, this great operation will be materially expedited. Every clals of men will be inftructed in that kind of knowledge which is fuited to their place in fociety. Those who are by profeffion popular inftructors, will learn to direct their principal attention to the great object of teaching the people how to become ufeful citizens and happy men. The education of youth, inftead of being conducted upon antiquated principles and for the purpose of oftentation, will be adapted to the particular deftination of each clafs of pupils, and to the great end of public good. By these means, all erders of men will become acquainted with the principles of individual happinefs, and of public profperity. Every human being, well inftructed in his nature, rights, and duties, will feel his confequence in the fcale of existence, and will fill up his place in focial life with an independent fpirit. Policy will be univer fally understood to be the art by which a people, voluntarily affociated, govern themfelves; morality, to be the art of uniting perfonal and focial happiness; and religion, to be the most fublime principle of right conduct. Men will no longer doubt, whether felf-love and focial be the fame, or be liable to make thofe erroneous calculations, which at prefent tempt them to pursue their own happiness at the expence of others. Every fituation in fociety will have its proper offices and occupations, and will at once afford individual happinefs, and contribute to the general good. In fine, Liberty, with all its attendant bleffings, will be univerfally enjoyed; Industry will every where crown her fous with plenty; Virtue will reward all her votaries with health and peace; and mankind will be come one family, governed by one mind, and enjoy all the felicity of which human nature is capable. In this manner I confider the world as perpetually improving, and mankind in continued progrefs towards perfection: and with this perfuafion, I regard the condition of human beings as a part of that great plan of Providence, in which Univerfal Love To From feeming evil ftill educes good, A the Editor of the Monthly Magazine. SIR, Ta time when the high price of provifions has become the fubject of univerfal complaint throughout England, it may not be uninterefting to tranfcribe the fates at which certain commodities were fold at Elgin, in North Britain, in the month of March, 1796. The communication was made by a refpectable inhabitant, to his fon, in London. Your's, Dec. 8, 1796. A CONSTANT READER. Fine Flour, 2s. 6d. per peck, of 8lbs. weight. Oatmeal, Is. 3d. per ditto, of 9 ditto. The price of both thefe articles has fallen fince, as has alfo that of our quartern loaf. Veal, 4d. to 4 d. per lb. Beef, 31⁄2d. to 4 d. per ditto. Mutton, 3d. to 4d. per ditto. Greens in great abundance, and very reasonable. A LL feeds, befide the germ, confift of one or two lobes, which form, at the commencement of vegetation, the feminal leaf, or leaves, whofe office is to "curith the young plant, till its roots are fufficiently large to fupply it with food, obtained from the earth in which it is placed hence refults a divifion of vegetables into fuch as have one feminal leaf, and are called monocotyledonous; and fuch as have two feminal leaves, and are thence named dicotyledonous. Thefe two general diftinétions, eftablished by Cafalpinus, have been admitted by feveral eminent botanifts, fuch as Ray, Boerhaave, Heifter, Vanroyen, Jufficu, &c., and been employed to advantage in their feveral arrangements. The difcoveries of Bernard Juffieu, Hedwig, and Swartz, warrant us in arranging the Filices, Mufci, and Alga, among the monocotyledonous. In the following obfervations, on the ftructure of Monocotyledonous Vegetables, the examples will, for the most part, be drawn from fuch plants as have agneous ftem, the fubftances of which they are compofed being more apparent than in fuch plants as have herbaceous ftems, with the additional advantage of being capable of being examined in any feafon of the year. The fems of dicotyledonous vegetables confift of the following parts: the EPIDERMIS, or outer bark, which a good deal refembles a very thin piece of parchment; it is pierced with innumerable minute pores, through which iffues the infenfible perfpiration; and when deftroyed, is capable of being re-produced. Under this, is found a fecond covering, called the CELLULAR MEMBRANE, or middle bark, a fucculent fubftance, generally green, formed of small rounded granulations, abounding with veficles, and mixed with very fine filaments extending in all directions; it appears to differ from the pith, in fcarcely any thing except colour; the inner bark, placed between the cellular membrane and the wood, is compofed of fmall plates, feparable from each other by maceration, and confifting of an affemblage of fapveffels and air-tubes, befides the veffels neceffary to their own nourishment. This inner bark is annually renewed. The wood confifts of the old inner barks, difpofed in concentric cylinders, of which the inner part, called the heart, is of a firmer texture, and deeper colour, than the outer. The centre of the ftem or trunk is occupied by the PITH, from which proceed a number of divergent ramifications and proceffes, reaching through the ligneous fibres, as far as the inner bark. The ftems of monocotyledonous vege tables confift of most of the above-mentioned fubftances; but with fuch marked differences of ftructure, as to establish two grand natural divifions of plants. Thefe variations will be pointed out by observations made on the various claffes and genera of monocotyledonous plants, viz. the Palma, Gramina, Afparagi, Dracontia, the Bulbous-rooted, the Filices, and Mufci. 1. PALMS. A palm, at firft fight, differs effentially from an afh, a birch, or any tree with two feminal leaves; the trunk is a regular column, whofe fummit is crowned with a tuft of leaves difpofed circularly, one above the other the new leaves, in fpring, push out from the top, while the older ones, placed below, wither and, by degrees, detach themfelves from the tree, leaving thofe circular impreffions, or rings, which denote the age of the tree, fo long as it continues to grow. The interior peculiarities of ftructure are as remarkable as the external differences: if a longitudinal fection be made, there will appear an affemblage of ligneous fibres, large, folid, fmooth, flexible, flightly compreffed, compofed of fimilar fmaller fibres, the greater number parallel to the axis of the trunk, and reaching, without interruption, from the top to the bottom; thefe are croffed and connected together by others placed obliquely, fo as to form a very acute angle with the former; and they may, with eafe, be feparated from each other in young plants, or thofe old ones that are in a ftate of decay: if a tranfverfe section be made, no concentric layers |
