visit them. The Copts, Abyssinians, Nestorians, &c. are scarcely perceptible in the crowd: and even the Jews are more remarkable from the striking peculiarity of their features and dress, than from their numbers as contrasted with other bodies. Mr. Jolliffe, who visited Jerusalem in 1817, states that the highest estimate makes the total number amount to twenty-five thousand. Dr. Richardson, who was at Jerusalem in 1818, computed the population at 20,000 persons; Dr. Scholz, in 1821, at 18,000; and the Rev. Mr. Fisk', an Anglo-American Missionary in Palestine, in 1823, at 20,000. The Rev. William Jowett, who was at Jerusalem in December 1823, was of opinion that 15,000 are the utmost which the city would contain in ordinary circumstances, that is, exclusive of the pilgrims, who are crowded into the convents, and fill up many spaces in the convents which are vacant nine months in the year, thus augmenting the population by some few thousands; and he was disposed to estimate the resident population at 12,000. Anthimus, secretary of the Patriarchate at Jerusalem, in 1838, reckoned the population at 10,920 souls; the Rev. Dr. Robinson, also in 1838, at 11,000; and Dr. Schulz, in 1845, at 15,510. The Rev. G. Williams2, whose residence at Jerusalem enabled him to form an accurate judgment between the various conflicting estimates, is of opinion that Dr. Robinson's computation is the more correct. The total number, therefore, of the ordinary inhabitants of Jerusalem cannot be rated higher than ten thousand. This is, indeed, a very slender aggregate, compared with the flourishing population which the city once supported; but the numerous sieges it has undergone, and the spoliations consequent on them, have left no vestige of its original power. "Jerusalem, under the government of a Turkish aga, is still more unlike Jerusalem, as it existed in the reign of Solomon, than Athens during the administration of Pericles, and Athens under the dominion of the chief of the black eunuchs. have it upon judgment's record, that before a marching army, a land has been as the garden of Eden, behind it a desolate wilderness. (Joel ii. 3.) The present appearance of Judæa has embodied the awful warnings of the prophet in all their terrible reality."3

Missionary Register for 1824, p. 503.

2 Holy City, vol. ii. pp. 613, 614.

We

Jolliffe's Letters from Palestine, written in 1817, Lond. 1820, 8vo. p. 102. The sketch of the modern state of Jerusalem, above given, has been drawn up, from a careful comparison of this intelligent writer's remarks, with the observations of Professor Carlyle (Walpole's Memoirs, p. 187.); of M. Chateaubriand, made in 1806 (Travels, vol. ii. pp. 53. 83, 84. 179, 180.); of Ali Bey, made in 1803-1807 (Travels, vol. ii. pp. 240—245.); of Capt. Light, made in 1814 (Travels in Egypt, &c. pp. 178-187.); and of Mr. Buckingham, made in 1816 (Travels in Palestine, pp. 260-262.). See also Dr. Richardson's Travels along the Mediterranean, &c. vol. ii. pp. 238-368.; Jowett's Christian Researches in Syria, pp. 238. 290.; Mr. Carne's Letters from the East, p. 62., and, especially, Dr. Robinson's Biblical Researches, vol. i. pp. 83-85.

CLIMATE, SEASONS, AND PHYSICAL APPEARANCE OF THE COUNTRY.'

I. THE surface of the Holy Land being diversified with mountains and plains, its CLIMATE varies in different places; though in general it is more settled than in our westerly countries. From Tripoli to Sidon, the country is much colder than the rest of the coast further to the north and to the south, and its seasons are less regular. The some remark applies to the mountainous parts of Judæa, where the vegetable productions are much later than on the sea-coast or in the vicinity of Gaza. From its lofty situation, the air of Saphet in Galilee is so fresh and cool, that the heats are scarcely felt there during the summer; though in the neighbouring country, particularly at the foot of Mount Tabor and in the plain of Jericho, the heat is intense.2 Generally speaking, however, the atmosphere is mild: the summers are commonly dry, and extremely hot3: intensely hot days, however, are frequently succeeded by intensely cold nights; and these sudden vicissitudes, which an Arab constitution alone can endure, together with their consequent effects on the human frame, verify the words of the patriarch Jacob to his father-in-law, that in the day the drought consumed him, and the frost by night. (Gen. xxxi. 40.)1

Besides the researches of modern travellers and the other authorities, cited for particular facts, the following treatises have been consulted for the present section, viz., Relandi Palestina, tom. i. pp. 234-379.; Jahn, et Ackermann, Archæologia Biblica, S$ 14-21.; Schulzii Archeologia Hebraica, pp. 4-9.; Pareau, Antiquitas Hebraica, pp. 57-64.; and Alber, Hermeneutica Sacra, tom. i. pp. 64-72.

Harmer's Observations, vol. i. pp. 2-4. London, 1808.

Of the intensity of the heat in Palestine, during the summer, some idea may be formed, when it is known that the mercury of Dr. E. D. Clarke's thermometer, in a subterraneous recess perfectly shaded (the scale being placed so as not to touch the rock), remained at one hundred degrees of Fahrenheit. Travels, vol. iv. p. 190. 8vo. edit.

The same vicissitudes of temperature exist to this day at Smyrna (Emerson's Letters from the Ægean, vol. i. p. 94.), also in the Desert of Arabia (Capt. Keppel's Narrative VOL. III.

D

II. Six several SEASONS of the natural year are indicated in Gen. viii. 22. viz. seed-time and harvest, cold and heat, summer and winter; and as agriculture constituted the principal employment of the Jews, we are informed by the rabbinical writers, that they adopted the same division of seasons, with reference to their rural work. These divisions also exist among the Arabs to this day. A brief statement of the natural phenomena occurring in these several seasons will enable us to form a tolerably correct idea of the climate and weather of the Holy Land.

1. SEED-TIME comprised the latter half of the Jewish month Tisri, the whole of Marchesvan, and the former half of Kisleu or Chisleu, that is, from the beginning of October to the beginning of December. During this season the weather is various, very often misty, cloudy, with mizzling or pouring rain. Towards the close of October or early in November, the former or early autumnal rains began to fall; when they usually ploughed their land, and sowed their wheat and barley, and gathered the latter grapes. The rains come chiefly from the west (Luke xii. 54.) and south-west, and continue for three or four days; falling especially during the nights, not without intermission, but in frequent showers. The air at this season is frequently warm, sometimes even hot; but is much refreshed by cold in the night, which is so intense as to freeze the very dews that fall. Towards the close it becomes cooler, and at the end of it snow begins to fall upon the mountains. The channels of the rivulets are sometimes dry, and even the large rivers do not contain much water. In the latter part of November the trees lose their foliage. Towards the end of that month the more delicate light their fires (Jer. xxxvi. 22.), which they continue almost to the month of April; while others pass the whole winter without fire.

2. WINTER included the latter half of Chisleu, the whole of Tebeth, and the former part of Sebat, that is, from the beginning of December to the beginning of February. In the commencement of this season, snows rarely fall, except on the mountains, but they seldom continue a whole day; the ice is thin, and melts as soon as the sun ascends above the horizon. As the season advances, the north wind and the cold, especially on the lofty mountains, which are now covered with snow, is intensely severe, and sometimes even fatal: the cold is frequently so piercing, that persons born in our climate can scarcely endure it. The roads become slippery, and travelling becomes both laborious and dangerous, especially in the steep mountainpaths (Jer. xiii. 16., xxiii. 12.); and on this account our Lord, when predicting the calamities that were to attend the siege at Jerusalem,

of a Journey from India to England, vol. i. p. 140. London, 1827. 8vo.), in the Desert between Damascus and the ruins of Palmyra (Carne's Letters from the East, p. 585.), in Persia (Morier's Second Journey, p. 97. London, 1818, 4to.), and in Egypt. (Capt. Light's Travels, p. 20.; Dr. Richardson's Travels along the Mediterranean, &c. vol. i. pp. 181, 182. London, 1822. 8vo.) Harmer has collected several testimonies to the same effect, from the earlier travellers in the East. Observations on Scripture, vol. i. pp. 61-65. London, 1808. Bava Metsia, fol. 106. cited by Dr. Lightfoot, in his Hebrew and Talmudical Exercitations on John iv. 36. (Works, vol. ii. p. 543.)

2 See Golius's Lexicon Arabicum, col. 934.

told his disciples to pray that their flight might not be in the winter. (Matt. xxiv. 20.) The cold, however, varies in severity according to the local situation of the country. On high mountains (as we have just remarked) it is extreme; but in the plain of Jericho it is scarcely felt, the winter there resembling spring; yet, in the vicinity of Jerusalem, the vicissitudes of a winter in Palestine were experienced by the crusaders at the close of the twelfth century, in all its horrors. Many persons of both sexes perished in consequence of want of food, the intenseness of the cold, and the heaviness of the rains, which kept them wet for four successive days. The ground was alternately deluged with rain, or encrusted with ice, or loaded with snow; the beasts of burden were carried away by the sudden torrents, that descended (as they still do) from the mountains, and filled the rivers, or sank into the boggy ground. So vehement were the rains, storms of hail, and winds, as to tear up the stakes of the tents, and carry them to a distance. The extremity of the cold and wet killed the horses, and spoiled their provisions.'

The hail-stones which fall during the severity of the winter season are very large, and sometimes fatal to man and beast. Such was the storm of hail that discomfited the Amorites (Josh. x. 10.); and such also the very grievous hail that destroyed the cattle of the Egyptians. (Exod. ix. 18. 23, 24.) A similar hail-storm fell upon the British fleet in Marmorice Bay, in Asiatic Turkey, in the year 18012, which affords a fine comment on that expression of the Psalmist, He casteth forth his ICE like morsels; who can stand before his cold? (Psal. cxlvii. 17.) The snow which falls in Judæa, is by the same elegant inspired writer compared to wool (Psal. cxlvii. 16.); and we are informed that in countries, which are at no great distance from Palestine, the snow falls in flakes as large as walnuts: but not being very hard or very compact, it does no injury to the traveller whom it covers.3

But, however severe the cold weather sometimes is in these countries, there are intervals even in the depth of winter when the sun shines and there is no wind, when it is perfectly warm-sometimes almost hot — in the open air. At such seasons the poorer classes in the East enjoy the conversation of their friends, sauntering about in the air, and sitting under the walls of their dwellings; while the houses of the more opulent inhabitants having porches or gateways, with benches on each side, the master of the family receives visitors there, and despatches his business-few persons (not even the nearest relations) having further admission except on extraordinary occasions. These 1 Harmer's Observations, vol. i. pp 36-42.

2 "On the 8th of February commenced the most violent thunder and hail-storm ever remembered, and which continued two days and nights intermittingly. The hail, or rather the ice-stones, were as big as large walnuts. The camps were deluged with a torrent of them two feet deep, which, pouring from the mountains, swept everything before it. The scene of confusion on shore, by the horses breaking loose, and the men being unable to face the storm, or remain still in the freezing deluge, surpasses description. It is not in the power of language to convey an adequate idea of such a tempest." (Sir Robert Wilson's History of the British Expedition to Egypt, vol. i. p. 8. 8vo. edit.) Hail-storms are so violent in some parts of Persia, as frequently to destroy the cattle in the fields. Kinneir's Geographical Memoir, p. 158.

* Harmer's Observations, vol. i. p. 45. note.

The same usage still obtains at Smyrna. Emerson's Letters from the Ægean, vol. i. pp. 96, 97.

circumstances materially illustrate a difficult passage in the prophet Ezekiel (xxxiii. 30.)-Also, thou son of man, the children of thy people are still talking concerning thee, by the WALLS AND IN THE DOORS of the houses, and speak one to another, every one to his brother, saying, Come, I pray you, and hear what is the word that cometh forth from the Lord. It appears from Ezek. xxxiii. 21. that these things were transacted in the tenth month, corresponding with the close of our December or the commencement of January. The poorer people, therefore, sat under their walls for the benefit of the sun, while those in better circumstances sat in their porchways or gateways to enjoy its genial rays.2

It appears, therefore, that one part of the winter is, by the inhabitants of the East, distinguished from the rest by the severity of the cold, which may be denominated the depth of their winter.

3. The COLD SEASON or Winter Solstice comprised the latter half of Sebat, the whole of Adar, and the former half of Nisan, from the beginning of February to the beginning of April. At the commencement of this season, the ground is frequently covered with a thick hoar frost, with occasional snow, and thin ice; and the weather is cold; but it gradually becomes warm and even hot, particularly in the plain of Jericho. Thunder, lightning, and hail are frequent. Vegetable nature now revives; the almond tree blossoms, and the gardens assume a delightful appearance. Barley is ripe at Jericho, though but little wheat is in the ear. The latter rains sometimes begin to fall in the end of this season, swelling the rising crops, with which the valleys are covered.

4. The HARVEST included the latter half of Nisan, the whole of Jyar (or Zif), and the former half of Sivan, that is, from the beginning of April to the beginning of June. In the first fortnight of this season, the latter rains are frequent, but cease towards the end of April, when the sky is generally fair and serene. In the plain of Jericho the heat of the sun is excessive, though in other parts of Palestine the weather is most delightful; and on the sea-coast the heat is tempered by morning and evening breezes from the sea. As the harvest depends on the duration of the rainy season, the early or autumnal rains, and the latter or spring rains, are absolutely necessary to the support of vegetation, and were consequently objects greatly desired by the Israelites and Jews. It appears, however,

In our authorised version, the preposition (BaK) is rendered against thee, which is erroneous, as the context shows that the Jews were talking of or concerning the prophet, and so it is properly rendered in Psal. lxxxvii. 3. Glorious things are spoken or thee, O city of God.

2 Harmer's Observations, vol. i. pp. 50-53.

The following are a few among the many allusions in the Scripture to the importance of the early and latter rains, and the earnestness with which they were desired: Deut. xi. 14.; Job xxix. 23.; Prov. xvi. 15.; Jer. iii. 3., v. 24.; Hos. vi. 3.; Joel ii. 23.; Zech. x. 1. "From these bountiful showers of heaven, indeed, the fertility of every land springs: but how dreadful in this country would be such a three years' drought, as was inflicted upon Israel in the days of Ahab, may easily be conceived, when it is remembered that in summer the richest soil is burnt to dust; so that a traveller, riding through the plain of Esdraelon in July or August, would imagine himself to be crossing a desert." (Jowett's Christian Researches in Syria, p. 306. London, 1825. 8vo.)