justice; was not our agreement for a denarius? Take what justice entitles thee to, without repining, and calmly acquiesce in the faithful performance of our original agreement -a principle of benevolence disposes me freely to bestow upon the last persons I hired what equity obliged me to give to you.

"It has been observed that slaves were condemned to the mines, where their uncomfortable lives were consumed in the most rigorous and servile drudgery. It is natural to suppose that these wretches, born to better hopes, upon their first entrance into these dismal subterraneous abodes of darkness and despair, with such doleful prospects before them, would be transfixed with the acutest distress and anguish, shed bitter unavailing tears, gnash their teeth for extreme misery, and fill these gloomy caverns with piercing cries and loud lamentations. Our Lord seems to allude to this, and, considered in this view, the imagery is peculiarly beautiful and expressive, when he represents the wicked servant and unfaithful steward bound hand and foot and cast into utter darkness, where there would be weeping, wailing, and gnashing of teeth! (Matt. viii. 12., xxii. 13.) The reader will be pleased with the ingenious remarks of the learned and judicious Dr. Macknight on this passage: - In ancient times the stewards of great families were slaves as well as the servants of a lower class, being raised to that trust on account of their fidelity, wisdom, sobriety, and other good qualities. If any steward, therefore, in the absence of his lord, behaved as is represented in the parable, it was a plain proof, that the virtues on account of which he was raised were counterfeit, and by consequence that he was an hypocrite. Slaves of this character, among other chastisements, were sometimes condemned to work in the mines. And as this was one of the most grievous punishments, when they first entered, nothing was heard among them but weeping and gnashing of teeth, on account of the intolerable fatigue to which they were subjected in these hideous caverns without hope of release. There shall be weeping and gnashing of teeth.'1

"Crucifixion was a servile punishment, and usually inflicted on the most vile, worthless, and abandoned of slaves. In reference to this it is that St. Paul represents our Lord taking upon him the form of a servant, and becoming subject to death, even the death of the CROSS. (Phil. ii. 8.) Crucifixion was not only the most painful and excruciating, but the most reproachful and ignominious death that could be suffered. Hence it is that the Apostle so highly extols the unexampled love for man and magnanimity of Jesus, who for the joy set before him endured the CROSS despising the shame (Heb. xii. 2.) and infamy even of such a death. It was this exit which Jesus made, that insuperably disgusted so many among the heathens; who could never prevail with themselves to believe that religion to be divine, whose founder had suffered such an opprobrious and infamous death from his countrymen. And for men to preach in the world a system of truths as a revelation from the Deity, which were first delivered

'Dr. Macknight's Harmony, p. 522. 2d edit. 1763.

to mankind by an illiterate and obscure Jew, pretending to a divine mission and character, and who was for such a pretension crucified, appeared to the heathens the height of infatuation and religious delusion. The preaching of the CROSS was to them foolishness (1 Cor. i. 23.); and the religion of a crucified leader, who had suffered in the capital of his own country the indignities and death of a slave, carried with it, in their estimation, the last absurdity and folly, and induced them to look upon the Christians, and the wretched cause in which they were embarked, with pity and contempt. Hence St. Paul speaks of the offence of the cross', the great and invincible disgust conceived by the men of those times against a religion whose founder was crucified! Hence he speaks of not being ashamed of the Gospel from the circumstance which made such numbers ashamed of it, nay, of glorying in the cross of Christ; though the consideration of the ignominious and servile death he suffered was the very obstacle that made the heathens stumble at the very threshold of Christianity, and filled them with insurmountable prejudices against it."3

V. Among the ancient Hebrews, all slaves and servants were under the orders of a steward, who was himself a servant, and who was called the eldest servant of the house. (Gen. xxiv. 2.) In later times, among the Greeks, slaves were commonly termed Soxo, in opposition to the suɛpoɩ, or those who were free born; and, by some of the comic writers, οἰκέται. They were also frequently termed παιδες. These appellations also occur in the New Testament, where we find them characterised by different names, according to the nature of the services which they performed. Thus in Acts xii. 20. we meet with a chamberlain; ... Blastus, ó èπì TOû KOLTŵVOS, who had charge of the royal bedchamber, or, in modern language, the royal chamberlain. These persons often had great influence with their masters. Those, who had large flocks of sheep and herds of cattle, which they intrusted to Topéves, inferior shepherds, appointed a chief shepherd, ȧрxinоíunν, to superintend them. In 1 Pet. v. 4. this appellation is applied to the chief teacher of religion, that is, Jesus Christ, who is to come as judge. Kings are often termed οἱ ποιμένες των λάων, shepherds of the people, because they watch for the safety and welfare of their subjects; and the same figure is transferred to religious teachers, who strive by their instructions and exhortations to promote the highest interests of mankind. The TiTpoos and oixovópos appear to be synonymous terms for him who had the chief charge or oversight of the property or domestic affairs of any one. This class of men had authority over the slaves of a family, and seem to have sometimes been slaves themselves. (Luke xii. 42.; 1 Cor. iv. 2.) Besides the general care of affairs, the boys of a family also appear to have been intrusted to their charge; at least in regard to pecuniary matters. (Gal. iv. 2.) Schleusner considers the πíτроπоs in this pas

1 Σκάνδαλον τοῦ σταυροῦ. Galat. v. 11.

2 God forbid that I should glory save in the cross of our Lord Jesus Christ. Galat. vi. 14.

3 Harwood's Introduction, vol. ii. pp. 147-152.

4 See Adam's Roman Antiquities, p. 488.

sage as the guardian appointed by the law or by the magistrate, and the oikovóμos as one who was appointed by will. Opposed to slaves were the 'Epyárat, or hired labourers (Matt. xx. 1.), whether they were Tewpyol, or cultivators of the soil (Luke xx. 9, 10.), 'AuлEXoupyoí, or vine-dressers (Luke xiii. 7.), or Oupwpol, door-keepers. (Mark xiii. 34.; John xviii. 16, 17.) But, whatever was the nature of their service, each was required to prosecute that particular work which was deemed most suitable for him by his master or lord, whether the latter was at home or abroad (Mark xiii. 34.; Luke xii. 42., xiv. 17., xvii. 7, 8.), with all honesty and fidelity. (Tit. ii. 9, 10.)1

Among the Greeks those slaves who had conducted themselves well were manumitted, or released from bondage. The Greeks termed those who were thus liberated aπελɛúlɛpovs, or freed-men; which word is applied by St. Paul to him who is called into the church of Christ, while a slave, in order to denote that he is free indeed, as being made by Christ a partaker of all the privileges of the children of God. (1 Cor. vii. 22.) Corinth was long the chief slave-mart of Greece and we may reasonably conclude that many slaves were converted to Christianity. In some of the Grecian states, the son and heir was permitted to adopt brethren, and communicate to them the same privileges which he himself enjoyed. To this some commentators have supposed that Jesus Christ refers in John viii. 32.

:

Lastly, when slaves proved ungrateful to their former masters or patrons, they might be again reduced into bondage, both among the Greeks and Romans. To this usage St. Paul may refer when he exhorts the Galatian believers in Christ not to suffer the judaising teachers again to entangle them in the yoke of bondage. (Gal. v. 1.)2

CHAP. VI.

DOMESTIC CUSTOMS AND USAGES OF THE JEWS.

I. "VARIOUS are the modes of address and politeness which custom has established in different nations. The Orientals were very exact in the observances of outward decorum: and we may collect from several passages in the Old and New Testaments, that their salutations and expressions of regard on meeting each other were extremely tedious and tiresome, containing many minute inquiries concerning the person's welfare, and the welfare of his family and friends; and when they parted, concluding with many reciprocal wishes of happiness and benediction on each other."3 The ordinary formula of salutation were

1 Robinson's Gr. Lexicon, in vocibus; Stosch's Compendium Archæologiæ Novi Testamenti, pp. 45, 46. ? Bruning, Compendium Græcarum à profanis Sacrarum, p. 86. Kuinöel, on John

viii. 32.

Of the minute, not to say frivolous, inquiries and salutations above-mentioned, the following is a striking illustration:-"Every passer by," says the Rev. Mr. Jowett, "has his Alla ybârakek,’-God bless you.' Conversation is sometimes among strangers made up of a very large proportion of these phrases; for example, - Good morning.' Answer, May your day be enriched!'- By seeing you.'-'You have enlightened the house by your presence.' 'Are you happy?"- Happy; and you, also.'-'You are comfortable,

1

The Lord be with thee!- The Lord bless the!

may

and Blessed be thou of the Lord! but the most common salutation was Peace (that is, all manner of prosperity) be with thee! (Ruth ii. 4.; Judg. xix. 20.; 1 Sam. xxv. 6.; Psal. cxxix. 8.) In the latter ages of the Jewish polity, much time appears to have been spent in the rigid observance of these ceremonious forms, for which the modern inhabitants of the East continue to be remarkable.' "When our Lord, therefore, in his commission to the seventy, whom he despatched into the towns and villages of Judæa to publish the Gospel, strictly ordered them to salute no man by the way (Luke x. 4.), he designed only by this prohibition that they should employ the utmost expedition; that they should suffer nothing to retard and impede them in their progress from one place to another; and should not lavish those precious moments, which ought to be devoted to the sacred and arduous duties of their office, in observing the irksome and unmeaning modes of ceremonious intercourse. Not that our Lord intended that his disciples should studiously violate all common civility and decency, and industriously offend against all the rules of courteousness and decorum, since he commanded them upon their entrance into any house to salute it (Matt. x. 12.), and observe the customary form of civility in wishing it peace (Luke x. 5.) or universal happiness. This injunction, to salute no one on the road, means only that they should urge their course with speed, and not suffer their attention to be diverted from the duties of their commission. There is a passage in the Old Testament parallel to this, and which beautifully illustrates it. Elisha, despatching his servant Gehazi to recover the son of the Shunamite, strictly enjoins him to make all the expedition possible, which is thus expressed: Gird up thy loins, and take my staff in thine hand, and go thy way. If thou meet any man, salute him not, and if any salute thee, answer him not again. (2 Kings iv. 29.)

"In all countries these modes of address and politeness, though the terms are expressive of the profoundest respect and homage, yet through constant use and frequency of repetition soon degenerate into mere verbal forms and words of course, in which the heart has no share. They are a frivolous unmeaning formulary, perpetually uttered without the mind's ever annexing any idea to them. To these empty, insignificant forms, which men mechanically repeat at meeting or taking leave of each other, there is a beautiful allusion in the following expression of our Lord in that consolatory discourse which he

I am comfortable;' meaning 'I am comfortable, if you are.' These sentences are often repeated; and, after any pause, it is usual to turn to your neighbour, and resume these courtesies many times." Jowett's Christian Researches in Syria, p. 90.

Serious and taciturn as the natives of the East usually are, they grow talkative when they meet an acquaintance, and salute him. This custom has come from Asia with the Arabs, and spread over the north coast of Africa. A modern traveller relates the reciprocal salutations with which those are received who return with the caravans. "People

go a great way to meet them: as soon as they are perceived, the questioning and salutation begins, and continues with the repetition of the same phrases: How do you do? God be praised that you are come in peace! God give you peace! How fares it with you?' The higher the rank of the person returning home, the longer does the salutation last." See Horneman's Journal. Stollberg's History of Religion, vol. iii. p. 183. Burder's Oriental Literature, vol. i. p. 486.

delivered to his apostles when he saw them dejected and disconsolate, on his plainly assuring them that he would soon leave them and go to the Father. Peace I leave with you: my peace I give unto you :— not as the world giveth, give I unto you. (John xiv. 27.) Since I must shortly be taken from you, I now bid you adieu, sincerely wishing you every happiness; not as the world giveth, give I unto you; not in the unmeaning ceremonial manner the world repeats this salutation for my wishes of peace and happiness to you are sincere, and my blessing and benediction will derive upon you every substantial felicity. This sheds light and lustre upon one of the finest and most beautiful pieces of imagery which the genius and judgment of a writer ever created. In the eleventh chapter of the Epistle to the Hebrews, the author informs us with what warm, anticipating hopes of the Messiah's future kingdom those great and good men, who adorned the annals of former ages, were animated. These all, says he, died in faith; they closed their eyes upon the world, but they closed them in the transporting assurance that God would accomplish his promises. They had the firmest persuasion that the Messiah would bless the world. By faith they antedated these happy times, and placed themselves, in idea, in the midst of all their fancied blessedness. They hailed this most auspicious period; saluted it, as one salutes a friend whose person we recognise at a distance. These all died in faith, died in the firm persuasion that God would accomplish these magnificent promises, though they themselves had not enjoyed them, but only had seen them afar off: God had only blessed them with a remote prospect of them. They were, therefore, persuaded of them, they had the strongest conviction of their reality -they embraced them-with transport saluted' them at a distance, confessing that they were but strangers and pilgrims upon earth, but were all travelling towards a CITY which had foundations, whose builder and maker is God."

Respect was shown to persons on meeting by the salutation of Peace be with you! and laying the right hand upon the bosom: but if the person addressed was of the highest rank, they bowed to the earth. Thus Jacob bowed to the ground seven times until he came near to his brother Esau. (Gen. xxxiii. 3.) Such was the piety of ancient times, that masters saluted their labourers with " The Lord be with you!" to which they answered, "The Lord bless thee !"3 Sometimes the hem of the person's garment was kissed, and even the dust on which he had to tread. (Zech. viii. 23.; Luke viii. 44.; Acts x. 26.; Psal. lxxii. 9.) Near relations and intimate acquaintances kissed each other's hands, head, neck, beard (which on such occasions only could

'Aσraoάuevo (Heb. xi. 13.) The word always used in salutations. See Romans xvi. passim.

2 Harwood's Introduction, vol. ii. pp. 279-283.

Not unlike the above, are the salutations in use at this time among the Turks. “Say to a Turk, according to custom, May your morning be propitious!' he replies, May you be the pledge of God!' Ask a Turk, Is your health good?' he answers, Glory be to God!' Salute him as you pass him rapidly in travelling, he exclaims, May God be merciful to you!' At parting, he addresses you, To God I commend you!' and is answered, May God be with you.'" — Hartley's Researches in Greece, p. 233.