represented by a beautiful allusion to the coining of money, in which the liquid metals accurately receive the figure of the mould or die into which they are poured. (Rom. vi. 17.)1 WEIGHTS AND MEASURES were regulated at a very early period in Asia. Moses made various enactments concerning them for the Hebrews; and both weights and measures, which were to serve as standards for form and contents, were deposited at first in the tabernacle, and afterwards in the temple, under the cognisance of the priests. On the destruction of Solomon's temple these standards necessarily perished; and during the captivity the Hebrews used the weights and measures of their masters. In the early ages of Christianity, as appears from the twenty-eighth of Justinian's Novels (c. 15.), standard weights and measures were ordered to be kept in the more venerated church of every city. For tables of the weights, measures, and money used in commerce, and which are mentioned in the Bible, the reader is referred to No. I. of the Appendix to this volume. CHAP. VIII. AMUSEMENTS OF THE JEWS. · ALLUSIONS TO THE THEATRES, TO THEATRICAL PERFORMANCES, AND TO THE GRECIAN GAMES IN THE NEW TESTAMENT. THE whole design of the Mosaic Institutes, being to preserve the knowledge and worship of the true God among the Israelites, will sufficiently account for their silence respecting recreations and amusements. Although no particular circumstances are recorded on this subject, we meet with a few detached facts which show that the Hebrews were not entirely destitute of amusements. I. The various events incident to DOMESTIC LIFE afforded them occasions for festivity. Thus, Abraham made a great feast on the day when Isaac was weaned. (Gen. xxi. 8.) Weddings were always seasons of rejoicing (see pp. 443–444. suprù): so also were the seasons of sheep-shearing (1 Sam. xxv. 36. and 2 Sam. xiii. 23.); and harvest-home. (See p. 495.) To which may be added, the birth-days of sovereigns. (Gen. xl. 20.; Mark vi. 21.) Of most of these festivities music (see p. 512.) and dancing (see p. 516.) were the accompaniments. From the amusement of children sitting in the marketplace, and imitating the usages common at wedding feasts and at funerals, Jesus Christ takes occasion to compare the Pharisees to sullen children who will be pleased with nothing which their companions can do, whether they play at weddings or funerals; since they could not be prevailed upon to attend either to the severe precepts and life of John the Baptist, or to the milder precepts and habits of 1 Cox's Horæ Romanæ, p. 33. 2 Michaelis has fully discussed the wisdom and propriety of the Mosaic regulations concerning weights and measures, in his Commentaries on the Laws of Moses, vol. iii. pp. 378-397. Christ. (Matt. xi. 16, 17.) The infamous practice of gamesters who play with loaded dice has furnished St. Paul with a strong metaphor, in which he cautions the Christians at Ephesus against the cheating sleight of men (Eph. iv. 14.), whether unbelieving Jews, heathen philosophers, or false teachers in the church itself, who corrupted the doctrines of the Gospel for wordly purposes, while they assumed the appearance of great disinterestedness and piety." II. MILITARY SPORTS and exercises appear to have been common in the earlier periods of the Jewish history. By these the Jewish youth were taught the use of the bow (1 Sam. xx. 20. 30—35.), or the hurling of stones from a sling with unerring aim. (Judg. xx. 16.; 1 Chron. xii. 2.) Jerome informs us, that in his days (the fourth century) it was a common exercise throughout Judæa for the young men, who were ambitious to give proof of their strength, to lift up round stones of enormous weight, some as high as their knees, others to their navel, shoulders, or head, while others placed them at the top of their heads, with their hands erect and joined together. He further states, that he saw at Athens an extremely heavy brazen sphere or globe, which he vainly endeavoured to lift; and that on inquiring into its use, he was informed, that no one was permitted to contend in the games until, by his lifting of this weight, it was ascertained who could be matched with him. From this exercise, Jerome elucidates a difficult passage in Zech. xii. 3., in which the prophet compares Jerusalem to a stone of great weight, which being too heavy for those who attempted to lift it up, or even to remove it, falls back upon them, and crushes them to pieces.3 III. Among the great changes which were effected in the manners and customs of the Jews, subsequently to the time of Alexander the Great, may be reckoned the introduction of GYMNASTIC SPORTS and GAMES, in imitation of those celebrated by the Greeks; who, it is well known, were passionately fond of theatrical exhibitions. These amusements they carried, with their victorious arms, into the various countries of the East; the inhabitants of which, in imitation of their masters, addicted themselves to the same diversions, and endeavoured to distinguish themselves in the same exercises. The profligate high priest Jason, in the reign of Antiochus Epiphanes, first introduced public games at Jerusalem, where he erected a gymnasium, or "place for exercise, and for the training up of youth in the fashions of the heathen." (2 Macc. iv. 9.) "The avowed purpose of these athletic exercises was, the strengthening of the body; but the real design went to the gradual change of judaism for heathenism, as was clearly indicated by the pains which many took to efface the mark of circumcision. The games, besides, were closely connected with idolatry; for they were generally celebrated in honour of some pagan god. The innovations of Jason were therefore extremely odious to the more pious part of the nation, and even his own adherents did not enter Kuinöel on Matt. xi. 17. 2 Dr. Macknight on Eph. iv. 14. 3 Jerome on Zech. xii. 3. (Op. tom. iii. col. 1780. Edit. Benedictin.) W. Lowth on Zech. xii. 3. fully into all his views." They also produced a demoralising effect upon the Jews. Ever the very priests, neglecting the duties of their sacred office, hastened to be partakers of these unlawful sports, and were ambitious of obtaining the prizes awarded to the victors. (10-15.) The restoration of divine wrshoip, and of the observance of the Mosaic laws and institutions under the Maccabæan princes, put an end to these spectacles. They were, however, revived by Herod, who, in order to ingratiate himself with the emperor Augustus (B. C. 7), built a theatre at Jerusalem2, and also a capacious amphitheatre, without the city, in the plain; and who erected similar edifices at Cæsarea 3, and appointed games to be solemnised every fifth year with great splendour, and amid a vast concourse of spectators, who were invited by proclamation from the neighbouring countries. Josephus's narrative of these circumstances is not sufficiently minute to enable us to determine with accuracy all the exhibitions which took place on these occasions. But we may collect, that they consisted of wrestling, chariot-racing, music, and combats of wild beasts, which either fought with one another, or with men who were under sentence of death: :- a barbarous amusement which has happily been abolished by the beneficent influence of the Gospel. Further, the most distinguished wrestlers were invited to attend by the promise of very great rewards to the victors. The Gentiles were highly delighted with these exhibitions, which were so utterly repugnant to the laws and customs of the Jews, that they regarded them with the utmost horror and detestation.1 IV. "In all countries the stage has ever furnished different languages with some of the most beautiful Metaphors and ALLUSIONS that adorn them.5 In every tongue we read of the drama of human life; its scenes are described as continually shifting and varying: mortal life is represented as an intricate plot, which will gradually unfold and finally wind up into harmony and happiness; and the world is styled a magnificent theatre, in which God has placed us, — Jahn's Hist. of the Hebrew Commonwealth, vol. i. p. 308. 2 Josephus, Ant. Jud. lib. xv. c. 8. § 1. Bell. Jud. lib. i. c. 21. § 8. The different passages of Josephus are examined in detail by Eichhorn (to whom we are indebted for the facts above stated) in his Commentatio de Judæorum Re Scenica, inserted in the second volume of the Commentationes Societatis Regiæ Gottingensis Recentiores. Gottinga, 1813. 4to. Josephus, Ant. Jud. lib. xv. c. 8. §§ 1, 2. 5 For the following account of the theatrical representations, and of the Grecian games alluded to in the New Testament, the author is indebted to Dr. Harwood's Introduction, vol. ii. sections 1. and 4., collated with Brüning's Compendium Antiquitatum Græcarum e profanis Sacrarum, pp. 352-376., from which treatise Dr. H. appears to have derived a considerable portion of his materials. • Σκηνὴ πᾶς ὁ βίος, καὶ παίγνιον· ἢ μάθε παίζειν, Τὴν σπουδὴν μεταθεὶς, ἢ φέρε τὰς ὀδύνας. Epigram in Antholog. Quomodo fabula, sic vita; non quàm diu, sed quàm bene acta sit, refert. Nihil ad rem pertinet, quo loco desinas : quocunque voles desine: tantùm bonam clausulam impone. Seneca, epist. lxxvii. tom. ii. p. 306. edit. Elz. 1673. Olov el кwμæddv àwoλúei tñs oknyñs ὁ παραλαβὼν στρατηγός· ἀλλ ̓ οὐκ εἶπον τὰ πέντε μέρη, ἀλλὰ τὰ τρία· καλῶς εἶπας· ἐν μέντοι To Bio Tà Tpíα öλov tò dpâμá éoti, Mar. Antoninus, lib. xii. p. 236. edit. Oxon. The words of the Psalmist, -"we spend our days as a tale that is told," have been supposed to be an allusion to a dramatic fable. The imagery, considered in this view, would be striking, did we know that the early Jews ever had any scenical representations. assigned to every man a character,- is a constant spectator how he supports this character, — and will finally applaud or condemn according to the good or bad execution of the part, whatever it is, he has been appointed to act. The drama was instituted to exhibit a striking picture of human life, and, in a faithful mirror, to hold up to the spectator's view that miscellany of characters which diversify it, and those interchanges and reverses of fortune which chequer it. It is scarcely necessary to remark, though the observation is proper for the sake of illustrating a very beautiful passage in one of St. Paul's Epistles, that a variety of scenes is painted, which by means of the requisite machinery are very frequently shifting, in order to show the characters in a variety of places and fortunes. To the spectator, lively and affecting views are by turns displayed, sometimes, for example, of Thebes, sometimes of Athens, one while of a palace, at another of a prison; now of a splendid triumph, and now of a funeral procession, every thing, from the beginning to the catastrophe, perpetually varying and changing according to the rules and conduct of the drama. Agreeably to this, with what elegance and propriety does St. Paul, whom we find quoting Menander, one of the most celebrated writers of the Greek comedy, represent the fashion of this world as continually passing away, and all the scenes of this vain and visionary life as perpetually shifting! "The imagery," says Grotius, "is taken from the theatre, where the scenery is suddenly changed, and exhibits an appearance totally different." 5 And as the transactions of the drama are not real, but fictitious and imaginary, such and such characters being assumed and personated, in whose joys or griefs, in whose domestic felicities or infelicities, in whose elevation or depression, the actor is not really and personally interested, but only supports a character, perhaps entirely foreign from his own, and represents passions and affections in which his own heart has no share how beautiful and expressive, when considered in this light, is that passage of Scripture wherein the apostle is inculcating a Christian indifference for this world, and exhorting us not to suffer ourselves to be unduly affected either by the joys or sorrows of so fugitive and transitory a scene! (1 Cor. vii. 29-31.) But this I say, brethren, the time is short. It remaineth that both they that have wives be as though they had none: and they that weep as though they wept not: and they that rejoice as though they rejoiced not: and they that Epicteti Enchirid. cap. 17. p. 699. Upton. Epicteti Dissertationes ab Arriano. lib. iv. p. 580. Upton. 2 M. Antoninus, lib. xi. § vi. p. 204. edit. Oxon. 3 Modò me Thebis, modò ponit Athenis. Horat. Epist. lib. ii. ver. 218. * 1 Cor. vii. 31. Παράγει γὰρ τὸ σχῆμα τοῦ κόσμου τούτου. • Dicitur, napayew tò oxĥμα tŷs okŋvîs, ubi scena invertitur, aliamque plane ostendit faciem. Grotius ad loc. Mais comme Grotius remarque que cette réflexion de l'Apôtre est empruntée du théâtre, et que le mot Grec oxua, que l'on traduit la figure, signifie proprement un personnage de théâtre, ou une décoration dans Euripide et dans Aristophane, et que les Grecs disoient pour marquer le changement de scène, ou de décoration du théâtre παράγει τὸ σχῆμα τῆς σκηνῆς, on croit qu'il faudroit traduire, La face de ce monde change, ce qui convient parfaitement au dessein de l'Apôtre dans cette conjoncture. Projet d'une Nouvelle Version, par le Cene, p. 674. Rotter. 1696. buy as though they possessed not: and they that use this world as not abusing it. For the fashion of this world passeth away. If we keep in mind the supposed allusion in the text (the fashion of this world passeth away) we shall discern a peculiar beauty and force in his language and sentiment. For the actors in a play, whether it be comedy or tragedy, do not act their own proper and personal concerns, but only personate and mimic the characters and conditions of other men. And so when they weep in acting some tragical part, it is as though they wept not; and there is more show and appearance, than truth and reality, of grief and sorrow in the case. On the other hand, if they rejoice in acting some brighter scene, it is as though they rejoiced not; it is but a feigned semblance of joy, and forced air of mirth and gaiety, which they exhibit to the spectators, no real inward gladness of heart. If they seem to contract marriages, or act the merchant, or personate a gentleman of fortune, still it is nothing but fiction. And so when the play is over, they have no wives, no possessions or goods, no enjoyments of the world, in consequence of such representations. In like manner, by this apt comparison, the apostle would teach us to moderate our desires and affections towards every thing in this world; and rather, as it were, to personate such things as matters of a foreign nature, than to incorporate ourselves with them, as our own proper and personal concern.2 The per "The theatre is also furnished with dresses suitable to every age, and adapted to every circumstance and change of fortune. sons of the drama, in one and the same representation, frequently support a variety of characters: the prince and the beggar, the young and the old, change their dress according to the characters in which they respectively appear, by turns laying aside one habit and assuming another, agreeably to every condition and age. The apostle Paul seems to allude to this custom, and his expressions regarded in this light have a peculiar beauty and energy, when he exhorts Christians to PUT OFF the OLD MAN with his deeds, and to PUT ON the NEW MAN. (Coloss. iii. 9. 10. ; Eph. iv. 22, 23, 24.) That ye PUT OFF, concerning the former conversation, the OLD MAN, which is corrupt according to the deceitful lusts: and be renewed in the spirit of your minds, and that ye PUT ON THE NEW MAN3, which after God is created in righteousness and true holiness. 66 It is moreover, well known, that in the Roman theatres and amphitheatres malefactors and criminals were condemned to fight with lions bears, elephants, and tigers, for which all parts of the 4 Karaxpúμevol is very unhappily rendered abuse. It is here used in a good sense, as the whole passage requires. From the transiency of human life the Apostle observes, that those who are now using this world's happiness will soon be as those who had never enjoyed it. The Greek writers use Παραχράομαι οι ̓Αποχράομαι, to abuse. 2 Brekell's Discourses, p. 318. Mihi quidem dubium non est quin hæc loquendi ratio ducta sit ab actoribus, qui, habitu mutato, vestibusque depositis, alias partes agunt, aliosque se esse produnt, quam qui in scenâ esse videbantur. Krebsii Observationes in Nov. Test. p. 342. Lipsiæ, 1755. Quodcunque tremendum est Dentibus, aut insigne jubis, aut nobile cornu, Claudian. |