Foreign View (26,542); P. L. Gray and R. E. Marsden, Intelligence Tests in Rural Schools (12,224); E. A. Lincoln, The Mental Age of Adults (9,133); H. H. Caldwell, Adult Tests of the Stanford Revision Applied to University Faculty Members (11,247); V. E. Dickson, The Use of Mental Tests in School Administration (Monog. 4, Berkely, Calif.); D. Davidson, The Inheritance of Ability (16,124); D. J. Saer, An Inquiry into the Effect of Bilingualism upon the Intelligence of Young Children (12,252); L. Remer A Comparative Study of a Border Line Defective and a Normal Child of the Same Mental Age (10,160); G. J. Rossolimo, “Psychologische Profile" defektiver Schüler (30,336).

TESTS. The number of new tests is smaller even than it was last year. There is a marked growth of critical attitude, as differences in results grow and as data which bear on some of the original assumptions accumulate. The data do not in many cases support the hypothesis; so the work must halt, till the workers get their bearings in fundamentals. For the most part, the plan of attack is to set the results of one test over against the pooled results of a group of tests. R. Franzen, in Attempts at Test Validation (9,145), correlates the results from 14 tests with one another and with the pooled score. Those tests which give the highest positive coefficients are best. W. J. Root, in Correlations between Binet Tests and Group Tests (10,286), tests 600 children by the Stanford Revision of the Binet-Simon scale and by 10 group tests. None of the results from the group tests correlates well with those from the Binet-Simon test for all grades. The Dearborn series and the Mentimeter scale are best, the National and the Otis scales are fair. Johnson and L. Schriefer, in A Comparison of Mental-Age Scores Obtained by Performance Tests and the Stanford Revision of the BinetSimon Scale (10,408), get mental ages by the performance scale that are comparable to those of the Binet-Simon scale although somewhat higher. Performance scale is better for the early years. S. C. Garrison, in Comparison of the Binet-Simon and Otis Tests (9,42), finds that the two tests give very different results. The Otis test gives more scatter and higher scores, and correlates better with teachers' estimates. Such a procedure does not, however, go unchallenged. G. C. Myers, in Validating Intelligence Tests (26,612), points out, what should be obvious, that it proves nothing beyond the fact that certain tests are more alike than others; it does not prove which is the better and which is the poorer test of intelligence.

B.

Another way to prove the claim that the tests are tests of native ability, and that native ability develops according to hypothesis, is to test for the constancy of the IQ and for practice effect. J. L. Stenquist, Constancy of the Stanford-Binet IQ as shown by Retests (10,54), finds that the amount of variation is so large as to make further refinement necessary. B. T. Baldwin and L. I. Stecher, in Additional Data for Consecutive Stanford-Binet Tests (10,556) and The Mental Growth Curve of Normal and Superior Children Studied by Means of Consecutive Intelligence Examinations (Univ. of Iowa Stud. Child Welfare, II., no. 1) observe that the IQ remains fairly constant for the average; individuals show much variation. Mental growth, as physical, is a composite of

many measures. S. C. Garrison, in Additional Retests by Means of the Stanford Revision of the Binet-Simon Tests (10,307), reports that subjects with a high IQ show more gain than those with a low IQ. The changes range from +15 to -15 points; 89 per cent show a change of eight points or less in their IQ. E. L. Thorndike, in Practice Effects in Intelligence Tests (11,101), shows that the practice effect is almost negligible after the fourth test. J. C. Chapman and A. B. Dale, in A Further Criterion for the Selection of Mental Test Elements (11,267), believe that native and environmental elements can be separated. On the mathematical side S. W. Fernberger, in Statistical and NonStatistical Interpretation of Test Results (23,68), attacks the statistical treatment of test results. The necessary overlapping is greater than the measures of precision will allow. Tests afford the basis for a qualitative analysis.

Tests and revisions of tests are: M. J. Ream, Group Will-Temperament Tests (10,7); J. E. Downey, Testing the Will-Temperament Tests (26,161); G. J. Rossolimo, Ausgleichende Zulagen zu den psychologischen Profilen (30,320); G. M. Wilson, Language Error Tests (10,430); H. H. Young, Slot Maze A (23,73); Y. Kubo, The Revised and Extended Binet-Simon Tests Applied to the Japanese Children (25,187); G. H. Thomson, The Northumberland Mental Tests (7,xii,201) and Age Standards for the Separate Northumberland Tests (7,72); R. Pintner and R. Keller, Intelligence Tests of Foreign Children (10,214); E. A. Lincoln, Time Saving in the Stanford-Binet Test (10,94); A. Langelüddeke, Zur Psychologie des Psychographierens (30,297); W. W. Beatty, Judging Handwriting (10,170); W. S. Miller, Miller Mental Ability Test; A. M. Engel, Detroit First Grade Intelligence Test; F. Kuhlmann, Handbook of Mental Tests; S. L. and L. C. Pressey, Introduction to the Use of Standard Tests.

Some articles which treat of statistical aids are: A. S. Otis, The Method for Finding the Correspondence between Scores in Two Tests (10,529); A. S. Otis, A Method of Inferring the Change in a Coefficient of Correlation Resulting from a Change in the Heterogeneity of the Group (10,293); L. L. Thrustone, A Data Sheet for the Pearson Correlation Coefficient (9,49); H. A. Toops, Solving Intercorrelations by Polar Coördinates (11,68); J. C. Chapman, Cumulative Correlation (911,263); there is also a 400page book by W. A. McCall, How to Measure in Education.

INDUSTRIAL. Industrial psychology is practically at a standstill for the present. We list the following publications: A. W. Forbes, Occupational Intelligence Standards: A Reply to Mr. Fryer (26,414); B. Muscio, Motor Capacity with Special Reference to Vocational Guid ance (7,157); M. S. Viteles, Job Specifications and Diagnostic Tests of Job Competency Designed for the Auditing Division of a Street Railway Company (23,83); S. G. Noble, The Acquisition of Skill in the Throwing of Basket Ball Goals (23,640; L. D. Edie, Practical Psychology for Business Executives.

BIBLIOGRAPHY. (1) J. Abnor. Psychol. and Soc. Psychol., xvii. (2) Amer. Jour. Psychol., xxxiii. (3) Jour. Appl. Psychol., vi. (4) Arch. f.d. ges. Psychol., a,xli; b.xlii, c,xliii. (5) Archives of Psychol., xxviii. (6) Arch. de Psychol., xviii. (7) Brit. Jour. Psychol., xiii.

(8) Educ. Rev., Ixiii. (9) Jour. Ed. Research, vi. (10) Jour. Ed. Psychol., xiii. (11) Jour. Exp. Psychol., v. (12) Jour. Exp. Ped., vi. (13) Jour. Comp. Psychol., ii. (14) Journ. Ment. Sci., lxviii. (15) Mind., xxxi. (16) Jour. Hered., xiii. (17) Quar. Rev. Brit. Col. Psyc. Sci., i. (18) Jour. Amer. Soc. Psych. Res., xvi. (19) Proc. Soc. Psych. Res., xxxii. (20) Psychol. Rev., xxix. (21) Psychol. Rev. Monog. Suppl., xxxii. (22) Jour. Phil., xix. (23) Psychol. Clinic, xiv. (24) Jour. de Psychol. normale et pathol., xix. (25) Ped. Sem., xxix. (26) School and Society, xvi. (27) School Rev., xxx. (28) Train. School Bull., xix. (29) Sci. Amer., a,cxxvi; b,cxxvii. (30) Zeit. f. angew. Psychol., XX. (31) Zeit. f. Psychol., a,lxxxviii; b,lxxxix; C,xc. (32) Amer. Jour. Psychiatry, a,i; b,ii. (33) Internatl. Jour. Psych. Anal., iii. (34) Dementia Præcox Stud., v.

PUBLIC SCHOOLS. See EDUCATION.
PUGILISM. See BOXING.

PULITZER TROPHY RACE. See AËRO

NAUTICS.

PULLEN, WILLIAM LE GEYT. Paymaster-inchief of the British Royal Navy in 1910, died, January 18. He was born, Sept. 1, 1855, and entered the Royal Navy in 1872. He was secretary to the Naval commander-in-chief in Australia in 1889, and in China in 1895, and in 1911-15 including the early part of the war. PULP. See PAPER.

PUTLITZ, JOACHIM GANZ ELDER ZU. See NECROLOGY.

QUAKERS. See FRIENDS.

QUEBEC. A province of Canada extending from Ontario to the northern border of the United States and New Brunswick and northward to the Hudson Strait, including most of the Labrador Peninsula. Capital, Quebec. Area, 706,834 square miles, including 15,969 of water. Population in 1921, 2,361,199; in 1911, 2,003,232, of whom, 1,605,339 were of French origin. Chief cities with their population in 1921: Montreal, 607,063, including Maisonneuve, etc.; Quebec, 116,850; Hull, 32,766; Verdun, 28,982; Three Rivers, 25,000. The area under field crops in 1920 was 7,906,000 acres and the value of product, $313,000,000. Forest area is estimated at 130,000,000 acres and the forest reserves, at 174,956 square miles. Pulp wood production is more important than in any other Canadian province, making up over half the Canadian total. The value of the fisheries in 1920 was $2,592,000. The mineral products in that year were valued at $28,393,000. Railway mileage in 1920 was 5012. The province is under a lieutenant-governor who acts through a responsible ministry, and under a legislative council of 24 members appointed for life and a legislative assembly of 81 members elected for five years. The distribution of parties in the legislature after the last election preceding 1922 was as follows: Liberals, 72; Conservatives, 7; Labor, 2. Lieutenant-governor at the beginning of 1922, Sir Charles Fitzpatrick; prime minister and attorney-general, L. A. Taschereau. See CANADA.

QUEENSLAND. A state of the Commonwealth of Australia, situated to the north of New South Wales; next to the largest of the Australian states. Area estimated at 670,500 square miles; population, estimated in 1921 at 757,634, of whom 358.024 were females; population in 1911, 605,813. The above figures do

not include aborigines, who have been estimated at about 20,000. The immigration in 1920 was 89,299, and the emigration, 89,099. The movement of population in 1920 was as follows: Births, 20,259; deaths, 7946; marriages, 6670. Capital, Brisbane, with a population in 1921 (with suburbs) of 209,699. Executive power is in the governor who acts through a responsible ministry, the legislative power in a legislative council and a legislative assembly, the former consisting of 59 members (at the close of 1921) nominated. by the crown for life, and the latter of 72 members elected for three years on the basis of male and female adult suffrage. Governor at the beginning of 1922, Lieut. Col. Sir Mathew Nathan; prime minister, E. G. Theodore.

The referendum having decided in favor of abolishing the legislative council a bill to that end was passed and it received the royal assent early in March. The referendum had been decided by a large majority in 1917. The movement for the abolition of the legislative council began in 1915, when a bill was introduced by the labor government for its abolition. The council objected to the bill and the government appealed to the people, but the first referendum showed a heavy majority against the plan. Then followed a persistent campaign which fi nally resulted in the referendum of 1917 in which a large majority approved abolition.

QUICKSILVER. Preliminary figures showing the production of quicksilver in the United States in 1922, compiled by the United States Geological Survey, gave a total of 6497 flasks, of 75 pounds net, as compared with 6339 flasks in 1921, which was the smallest annual output in the 72 years of recorded production of domestic quicksilver. In 1922 California produced 3494 flasks, Texas 2725 flasks, and Nevada and Oregon 278 flasks. The average price of quicksilver in 1922 per flask of 75 pounds, as calculated from quotations by the Engineering and Mining Journal-Press, was $58.95 for New York and $57.78 for San Francisco. The price declined from $51 New York and $50 San Francisco early in January, to $48 New York and $47.30 San Francisco in February. From the 1st of March the rise was fairly steady to $74 New York and $71.30 San Francisco at the end of the year. The tariff act of 1922, which went into effect on September 21, placed a duty on imported quicksilver, of 25 cents a pound equivalent to $18.75 a flask. At the end of the year the directors of the great Almaden mine, in Spain, where extensive improvements have been in progress, reduced the price of quicksilver at the mine to the equivalent of about $45 per flask. No important additions to known resources of domestic quicksilver were made during the year 1922, but the effect of the new import duty will probably be seen in a moderate increase in production in 1923.

RACING. The sudden and unexpected col lapse of Morvich, the wonder horse of 1921 was the outstanding feature of the turf season of 1922. After having captured 11 races in a row this thoroughbred owned by Benjamin Block was counted on to sweep all before him as a three-year old. But after starting off by winning the Kentucky Derby, Morvich lost four times in succession and was finally withdrawn from competition.

Willis Sharpe Kilmer's veteran campaigner

Exterminator furnished a sensation by winning purses to the total of $71,000 but the biggest money winner of the year was R. T. Wilson's Pillory which captured purses amounting to $95,000. W. S. Kilmer's Sally's Alley ranked second with a harvest of $94,000. The leading American jockeys of 1922 were Sande and John

son.

The winners of the more important turf fixtures in the United States were: Brooklyn Handicap, Exterminator; Saratoga Handicap, Grey Lag; Suburban Handicap, Capt. Alcock; Saratoga Cup, Exterminator; Futurity, Sally's Alley; Latonia Derby, Thibodaux; Kentucky Derby, Morvich; Dwyer Stakes, Rag Joy; Metropolitan Handicap, Mad Hatter; Preakness Stakes, Pillory.

The English Derby was won by Captain Cuttle owned by Sir J. Buchanan and ridden by S. Donoghue, Kefalin, owned by M. Ambaticios, captured the Grand Prix de Paris with S. Donoghue in the saddle.

A new trotting queen appeared on the Grand Circuit in Nedda which covered a mile in 1:58 1-4, beating the 19-year-old record of 1:58 1-2 set by Lou Dillon. Peter Manning also distinguished himself by lowering his world's championship trotting record of 1:57 3-4 to 1:56 3-4. Among the pacers Margaret Dillon stood out by equalling the world's record of 1:58 1-2 for a mile against time.

The Grand Circuit season comprised 14 meetings with a total of 274 races. Czar Worthy was the biggest individual winner with $22,800. Lee Worthy ranking next with $22,700. The leading driver of the year was Walter R. Cox with the veteran Thomas W. Murphy a close second.

RACQUETS and COURT TENNIS. Jack Soutar of Philadelphia successfully defended his title of world's professional racquets champion by defeating Charles Williams of England by seven games to four. Clarence C. Pell retained his amateur racquets championship and Stanley W. Pearson again won the amateur squash racquets crown. Thomas R. Coward of the Yale Club, New York City. captured the squash tennis championship, while Jay Gould successfully defended his national amateur and open titles at court tennis. George Covey of England defeated Walter Kinsella of the United States in a match for the world's professional squash championship.

RADCLIFFE COLLEGE. A non-sectarian institution for the education of men at Cambridge, Mass., founded in 1879. The enrollment in 1922, was 728. Instruction is given by members of the Harvard faculty. Most of the courses of study are identical with courses offered in Harvard University, and all are of the same grade with those given at Harvard. Presi-, dent. Le Baron Russell Briggs. LL.D., Litt.D.

RADIO BROADCASTING. Improvements in radio transmitting and receiving apparatus stimulated by the suddenly aroused popular interest in the possibilities of radio-telephonic communication in the latter part of the year 1921. led, in 1922, to the greatest manifestation of enthusiasm for wireless apparatus ever known. The broadcasting of news, music, sermons, amusement programmes, weather forecasts, etc., was eagerly sought for from the stations appropriately equipped, by literally hundreds of thousands of amateur and professional radio

enthusiasts. Additional broadcasting stations were hastily installed and manufacturers whose plants were fitted for quantity production of amateur sets were overwhelmed with orders. Department stores, specialty and sporting goods shops and drug stores, all to a greater or less degree stocked up with a "line" of radio sets and accessories. Encouraged by the sudden and seemingly limitless demand, many firms undertook, without sufficient experience and with inadequate capital, to manufacture the various kinds of apparatus now in such favor by the buying public. After a few months, however, and with the coming of warmer weather, the attraction of outdoor forms of recreation seemed to cause a slackening of the demand for radio goods and the craze for "listening in" began to wane. Many former enthusiasts wearied of their radio and turned to other forms of amusement; orders for apparatus decreased in a marked manner; with the result that some manufacturers were obliged to go out of business and the wiser, more far-sighted dealers and producers began to see the realization of their predictions made earlier in the year; to the effect that the "craze" would soon burn itself out. The slump in popularity of radio was followed, however, by a revival upon a firmer basis; and by the end of the year, broadcasting had become a fixed institution of our national life; manufacturers were steadily engaged on orders and constantly increasing numbers of amateurs as well as skilled technicians were assisting in the development of the art of radio transmission. New and ingenious designs and arrangements, many of them suggested by amateurs, were being contributed to the general knowledge of the subject and the number of high-power broadcasting stations had increased, according to a reliable authority, to 546. It was estimated that about 2,000,000 persons were regularly making use of this service; and that in the whole of the United States there was about $150,000,000 invested in radio broadcasting and receiving apparatus.

RADIO IN AGRICULTURE. See AGRICULTURE.

RADIO SIGNALS. See LIGHTHOUSES. RADIO-TELEGRAPHY AND TELEPHONY. Radio-telegraphic communication continued to demonstrate its value for commercial purposes as well as for emergency messages between ships at sea and between ships and shore stations. In trans-oceanic service it was supplementing the cables, especially for certain classes of news dispatches. By the end of the year there was regular communication between New York and the various stations in England, France, Germany, and Norway. Powerful stations were in process of construction in Sweden, Holland, Italy, and Poland, on the completion of which it was expected that regular commercial service would be inaugurated with all other countries of the world suitably equipped. On the Pacific Coast, regular exchange of messages was had with Hawaii and Japan. In addition to and supplementing the existing wire systems, an extensive radio-telegraphic service was carried on between San Francisco. San Diego, Los Angeles, Tacoma, Seattle, and Portland. While improvements in the construction and modes of connection of the three-electrode vacuum tube contributed very largely to the satisfactory results obtained, no entirely satisfactory means

of overcoming static disturbances and interruptions had been worked out. Signor Marconi stated that during a recent voyage across the Atlantic, static disturbances appeared to originate over the continental areas, being noticeable as coming from Africa and Europe during the first part of the trip and from North and South America as the ship was approaching the United States. Another authority gave it as his opinion that, as regards range of communication, the distance over which radio-telegraphic signals could be satisfactorily transmitted appeared to be limited by the receiving apparatus. An interesting fact was noted by several observers, that radio signals from a given station, as determined by suitable direction-finding apparatus, came by a roundabout course, not always following the shortest distance between sending and receiving stations. This was ascribed to the static conditions existing at that particular time. At some of the European stations, signals from North America, such as from Radio Central, or Tuckerton came from a direction that seemed to show that they had travelled about three-quarters of the distance around the Earth, rather than by the shortest path from station to station. Marconi also called attention to the fact that in his experience, when sending over great distances, transmission from west to east appeared to be easier and better than from east to west.

It was in long distance radio-telephonic communication, however, that the year 1922 was a notable one. With the development that had marked the latter part of 1921 demonstrating its enormous possibilities, and greatly stimulating public interest, it had become clear that this new form of communication, made available to an ever increasing number of people would bring about new forms of entertainment, new means of public information and instruction, and changed habits of life. The extreme sensitiveness of the vacuum tube receiver and amplifier and the so-called "feed-back" arrange ment in the Armstrong regenerative tube circuit extended the range of telephonic transmission enormously. Other improvements in apparatus and connections were introduced that facilitated communication by improving the quality of the voice tones, reproducing them more naturally and thereby increasing the range of satisfactory broadcasting (see RADIO BROADCASTING).

Experiments were in progress developing a radio telephone set for railway service that would enable an engineman to communicate with the conductor in the caboose of a freight train. Difficulties hitherto encountered in telephoning to and from the steel cars of railroad trains were considered to have been overcome by apparatus tried out on a train on the Pennsylvania Railroad, which was in continuous telephonic communication with various division points throughout its journey from New York to Pittsburgh, but even when passing through the tunnel under the Hudson River, where until this occasion, the tunnel had so shielded the train from radiations that talk had been almost impossible. The receiving equipment was a tuned, 18-inch loop antenna, three steps of amplification, an audion detector, and two steps of audio frequency amplification.

The broadcasting of music, speeches, sermons, etc. was soon followed by lecture courses on various subjects. It was even proposed that

colleges and universities should broadcast their courses and thus disseminate more widely the advantages now confined to those who attend in person. But, while the suggestion seemed somewhat utopian, it was difficult to forecast just what the next development in radio might be. With so many experimenters and enthusiasts at work, many valuable devices were developed by amateurs; and while a variety of types of receiving sets were in use, often giving very unsatisfactory results as regards clearness of speech or musical tone, improvements were constantly brought out that added greatly to the general store of knowledge of the subject, including the technique of arrangement of circuits, "hookups," etc. The many skilled and resourceful radio engineers were actively engaged on the various problems involved in the range of telephonic communication and it was confidently expected that as a result of experiments under way at the close of the year, satisfactory communication between New York and London would be achieved early in 1923. The United States Department of Commerce, in order to preunnecessary interference and confusion found it advisable to prescribe certain definite wave lengths for broadcasting from various stations and required that these be adhered to.

vent

While to the average person the entertainment feature of the radio telephone was probably the matter that interested them most, yet to a large part of the agricultural population, the weather forecasts, market reports and freight traffic conditions were of greatest importance. The warning of an approaching cold wave, received by radio telephone gave ample opportunity for fruit and vegetable growers to protect their crops. A heavy snow storm might so delay shipments of perishable freight as to render it saleable only at a heavy loss. And again, a shipper, by reason of timely radio information, could change the routing of his produce and send it to a more advantageous market. With so many persons in every community equipped with a radio set in their homes, the remotest regions have been brought into touch with news of the most timely and vital interest to the inhabitants. The facilities thus rendered available are quickly appreciated by others, who thus become radio "fans" and install home-made sets that answer all ordinary purposes of providing news, entertainment and instruction.

In spite of the rapid development of the radiophone, it seemed unlikely that it would displace the wire telephone. Radio augments the usefulness of the latter; in fact, rather encourages its use for all ordinary means of communication. On account of the adjustments and tuning necessary for satisfactory reception with the radio set and owing to the fact that it is neither secret nor directive for the average user, its employment is specialized and different from that of the wire telephone, filling new uses created by its existence, but not encroaching, to any perceptible extent, upon the legitimate field of the wire telephone.

Some valuable work was done during the year in developing what was called "wired radio," a system which by making use of existing electric power circuits for directing radio waves was employed for communicating between certain places a few miles apart. Thus, in one large city, conversation was carried on between two electric power stations, the radio set being con