Furthermore, aside from the practical value, a clearcut, pleasing style of speaking is a mark of training, of culture, which immediately makes a favorable impression in whatever situation its possessor finds himself, whether in private conversation or speaking to an audience.

These facts are being more and more widely recognized, and the speaking activity during the war is only a striking instance of the generally awakened interest in the use of the voice. College presidents, directors of technical schools, prominent leaders in political, social, and professional life have in recent years specifically urged the desirability of developing in young men and women the power to speak well. Such organizations as the Y. M. C. A. and the Y. M. H. A. have instituted classes in speaking. Business men have joined together in speaking clubs under the direction of an instructor. A "Better Speech Week " movement has been inaugurated. So far-reaching a project as the "Speaking Clubs of America," has been launched. As a result of the growing demand for better speaking, schools and colleges have begun to devote more attention to this phase of education. More time is being given to the study of speech; new courses are being inaugurated; classes in English to Foreigners, with special emphasis on the spoken word, are springing up all over the country; oral English is gaining a more prominent position in the grade schools. Even correspondence schools are offering courses in public speaking. We are, it seems, on the way not only to removing the cause for the oft-repeated charge of being a nation with disagreeable voices and slovenly speech, but also to becoming a na

tion of clear, correct, agreeable and impressive speak

ers.

This is looking a long way ahead because the speech problem in this country is a very difficult one. The average American has been and is exceedingly careless about his speech. Then, too, we are a numerous people, living in a country whose great extent gives rise to many variations from a single standard. Moreover, we are constantly receiving from various countries people who bring with them words, sounds, and vocal modulations tending to produce in America a manner of speech which is a confused mixture of all kinds of expression. But the signs of determined effort to overcome these corruptive factors are encouraging; and, aside from the motive of self-interest, it should be a matter of pride with every student to play a part in the movement for better American speech.

To make that part a more helpful one we shall study the fundamental factors of vocal expression, namely: the vocal apparatus, breathing, vowel and consonant production, pronunciation, and the management of the voice with respect to quality, pitch, force, and time. It is to be emphasized, however, that the mere study of voice principles is of comparatively little value. It is only when theory is put into practice, and, furthermore, only when that practice results in vocal habits that the greatest benefits are secured. Therefore, constant provision is made for the application of the principles set forth. And the student is strongly urged not only to translate principles into practice in connection with his class-room work, but also to begin at once to make use in his daily conversations of the suggestions met with as he proceeds in the study of the text.

voice-box during the swallowing process, thus directing all substances into the gullet behind it. To all these cartilages are attached various muscles which raise, lower, and tip the entire voice-box, open and shut the epiglottis, tighten and relax the vocal bands, and narrow and widen the glottis.

The fundamental sound of the voice is produced by puffs of breath passing through the glottis and setting up vibrations of the vocal bands. If the bands are sufficiently relaxed and separated, as in ordinary breathing, no sound ensues. When the bands are tightened and brought closer together, vocalization begins. The closer and tighter they are drawn, the higher the tone will be; the stronger the current of breath becomes, the louder will be the resultant tone.

But the fundamental tone produced in the voice-box is not the sound which is actually heard. Before it reaches the listener it has been greatly strengthened and improved by the third factor mentioned at the beginning of this chapter, the resonance cavities. The most important of these are: the pharynx, that muscle-lined cavity above the voice-box and commonly known as the back part of the mouth or upper part of the throat; the mouth proper; the two nasal cavities, extending from the roof of the mouth to the base of the skull; and the four small cavities (sinuses) in the lower part of the skull.

These numerous cavities are the chambers in which vibrate the sound waves set up by the fundamental vibrations in the voice-box. They correspond to the brass tubing of a horn, the pipes of an organ, or the hollow body of a violin. The chief reason why so many thin," or "flat," "harsh," or "nasal" is

voices are

66

not that there are so many defective organs, but that people so often fail to utilize their resonance cavities to advantage. This matter we shall consider when the subject of voice quality is discussed. Our more immediate concern is with the fact that two of the resonance cavities, the pharynx and the mouth, are capable of various changes in size and shape through the raising and lowering of the larynx, the shifting of the tongue and soft palate, and the operating of the muscles of the pharynx and jaws. To these changes, mainly, is due the remarkable variety of vowel sounds.

The last factor of speech mechanism is the apparatus of articulation. It is by articulating, or joining, in various ways, two or more organs of the mouth that the consonant sounds are made possible. The organs of articulation are as follows: the hard palate, which roofs the front half of the mouth; the tongue, whose parts will be subsequently designated as back, blade (middle section), and tip; the teeth; the lips; and the soft palate, which forms an arching partition between the mouth and the nasal cavities above. This partition can be lowered so as to direct the breath current through the nasal passages, as in the case of the m, n, or ng sounds; or it can be raised so as to direct the breath out through the mouth, as in the case of h. For the majority of consonants, it is arched sufficiently to direct most of the breath out through the mouth.

Having in mind the chief mechanical factors by which the speech sounds are produced, we shall now proceed to examine in some detail the proper operation of the vocal apparatus.

CHAPTER III

BREATHING

The vocal organ is a wind instrument, essentially like the oboe and bassoon, with respect to sound production. Just as the tones of these two instruments are obtained by forcing between two reeds a stream of air, so vocal tones depend upon breath being sent out between the vocal bands. Breath is the fundamental factor of voice; therefore a careful consideration of its proper management is essential. Good speaking requires that we breathe correctly, that we utilize our lung capacity, and that we gain full control of the breath supply.

First, it is to be observed that the capacity of the lungs is less in the upper than in the middle and lower sections. Next, we should note that the lungs are surrounded by a framework consisting of the spinal column in the rear, the twelve ribs around each side, and the breast-bone (sternum) to which the upper ten pairs of ribs are joined in front. Numerous muscles attached to this framework permit an upward forward movement of the sternum and ribs, thus inducing a horizontal expansion of the lungs. Furthermore, a longitudinal expansion is made possible by the proper use of the diaphragm. This organ is a broad, dome-shaped muscle, attached at the front, sides, and back to the sternum, lower ribs, and spinal-column respectively. Resting on top of the diaphragm are the lungs; below is the upper abdomen.