§ 463. The Perfect participle of a verb which governs two cases, when united with a verb of existence, retains only the latter of them, as :

Waes him nama sceapen

A name was given him.

§ 464. Adverbs qualify other words, and some of them may be defined by the article, as :

§ 465. Two or more negatives strengthen the negation,

as:

Ne geseáh naefre nán mann No man ever (never) saw (not) God.

God

§ 466. Some adverbs govern the Genitive, and others the Dative, as :-

Forth nihtes

Laes worda

Nehst thaere eaxe

Far in the night.

Less words.

Nearest the axel.

NOTE.--Adverbs are, for the most part, placed arbitrarily in the sentence, but "ne" always stands before the verb which it qualifies. Words compounded with this particle do not express a complete negation unless it is also added in its simple state, and occupies its proper position. When "ná" having the sense of not, is used in connection with it, the verb is placed between them. Nor and not are expressed by "ne ne" when one "ne" already precedes, or after "náther," neither, by only a single "ne" in each member.

§ 467. Prepositions govern different cases as specified in 8413. Thus:

Tó-middes hyra
Of aelcum treowe
Thurh me-sylfne
Mid thý earme

In the midst of them.
Of every tree.
By myself.

With the arm.

NOTE 1.-" On," and some other prepositions governing the Dative or Ablative, and the Accusative, usually govern the latter when motion to, or toward is denoted, and the former, when rest, or continuance is signified.

NOTE 2. Sometimes, especially in phrases, we find the Accusative following “aet,” “ tó,” and “ on,” when we would expect the Dative, or Ablative.

NOTE 3.-A preposition when compounded with a verb, may have the same government as in its ordinary construction in the sentence.

§ 468. Conjunctions connect sentences and parts of sentences, as well as words of the same kind, as :

Ic eom wín-eard, and ge I am a vine, and ye are

§ 469. The conjunctions "gif," if, "thaet," that, "sám,” whether, "theáh," though, "swilce," as if, etc., are followed by the Subjunctive mood when any thing doubtful or contingent is implied, as:

§ 470. But when a simple declaration is made, the Indicative follows, as:

Gif we secgath

If we say.

§ 471. The verbal conjunction "utan,' utan,” “uton,” “utun,” let us, governs the Infinitive, as :—

Utan biddan God

Let us beseech God.

Uton gán heónon

Utun faran tó Bethleem

Let us go hence.

Let us go to Bethlehem.

§ 472. Some Interjections are followed by the Nominative, and others by the Dative case, as :—

Lá thú liccetere

Oh thou hypocrite!

Wá thám men

Wá eow, bóceras

Wo to the man!

Wo unto you, scribes!

§ 473. The Indefinite form of the adjective is used with common nouns, when the interjection is either expressed or understood, as :—

Eálá, leóf hláford

Awyrgede woruld-sorga

Alas! dear lord.

Accursed worldly cares!

§ 474. But with pronouns of the first and second persons, the Definite form usually occurs, as :

Ic wrecca

Thú stunta

Wretched me!

Foolish thou!

PART IV-PROSODY.

OF ANGLO-SAXON POETRY IN GENERAL.

§ 475. Anglo-Saxon poetry in its nature resembles the abrupt, nervous expressions of man in his uncultivated state. Its leading characteristic is periphrasis, which is always mingled with metaphor, and sometimes in great abundance, while artificial inversions of words and phrases are not uncommon. In its constitution, it is precisely such as we would expect to meet with in an age when bards sung the praises of heroes, taking up and arranging the epithets showered upon them by the applauding multitude, interspersed with any ideas that might occur to their own minds. And this feature appears as well when sacred subjects are the poet's theme as any others. The praises of the Deity and of the warrior chieftain are celebrated in like strains.1

1 Upon this subject we quote the words of Mr. Wright, as contained in his Biographia Britannica Literaria—Anglo-Saxon Period, pp. 8, 9: "The Anglo-Saxon poetry," he observes, "has come down to us in its own native dress. In unskilful hands it sometimes became little more than alliterative prose; but as far as it is yet known to us, it never admitted any adventitious ornaments. Having been formed in a simple state of society, it admits, by its character, no great variety of style, but generally marches on in one continued strain of pomp and grandeur, to which the Anglo-Saxon language itself was in its perfect state peculiarly adapted. The principal characteristic of this poetry is an endless variety of epithet and metaphor, which are in general very expressive, although their beauty sometimes depends so much on

§ 476. The poetry of the Anglo-Saxons is of two kinds, native or vernacular, and Latin. The latter originated from the Roman, and follows the same laws. It is the construction of the former that requires a brief consideration in this place.

§ 477. The only rule which they appear to have observed in the composition of their native verses was that of pleasing the ear, and this they effected by combining their words into a rhythmical cadence. "Rhythmus,' says Bede, is a modulated composition of words, not according to the laws of meter, but adapted in the number of its syllables to the judgment of the ear, as are the verses of our vulgar (or native) poets. Rhythm may exist without meter, but there cannot be meter without rhythm, which is thus more clearly defined.

"Meter is an artificial rule with modulation: rhythmus is the modulation without the rule. Yet, for the most part, you may find, by a sort of chance, some rule in rhythm, but this is not from an artificial government of the syllables. It arises because the sound and the modulation lead to it. The vulgar poets effect this rustically: the skilful attain it by their skill.'"

§ 478. This rhythmus "the skilful" produced by such a choice and arrangement of their words, not disregarding accent, that a proper modulation was maintained in giving utterance to any two or more corresponding lines in a

the feelings and manners of the people for whom they were made, that they appear to us rather fanciful. As, however, these poets drew their pictures from nature, the manner in which they apply their epithets, like the rich coloring of the painter, produces a brilliant and powerful impression on the mind. They are, moreover, exceedingly valuable to the modern reader, for they make him acquainted with the form, color, material, and every other attribute of the things which are mentioned."

'Sharon Turner-Hist. of the Anglo-Saxons, Vol. III, B. IX, Ch. I.