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in his expeditions, and thus travelled over Central Asia; in 1335, an Italian merchant, Balducci Pegoletti, went to Pekin by the central Asiatic route; and in 1403 Clavijo was sent as an ambassador by the court of Spain to Samarcand. About the end of the fourteenth century the brothers Zeni re-discovered Greenland, and announced the existence of a large island, which they called Frisland. Modern geographers have not yet arrived at the satisfactory solution of the problem, to what country or island this name applies. Africa had almost become unknown, when the Portuguese began to explore the western part of this continent. This nation, animated by a zeal for making voyages and discoveries, undertook to rectify the errors of geographers, and to contradict the dreams of Greek and Roman antiquity, as well as the reveries of the middle ages, by experimentally proving the fact that the zone of the globe hitherto deemed uninhabitable was as accessible to man as the temperate regions. Previous to the year 1411, the Portuguese had never ventured beyond Cape Nun, which they considered as an impassable limit. An expedition was then prepared and sent out, which proved completely successful; it not only doubled this redoubtable cape, but extended its researches as far as Cape Bojador. Then commenced that series of successful enterprises which have gained for this people their lasting reputation as early discoverers of unknown lands. Under the direction of Henry of Portugal, a noble and zealous prince, in 1432, exploring squadrons from Lisbon doubled Cape Bojador, discovered the river Senegal, reconnoitred the coast of Africa from Cape Blanco to Cape Verd, landed on the islands which take their name from the latter cape, and took possession of the Azores, situated about nine hundred miles from the African continent. Some years later the Portuguese crossed the equinoctial line or equator, and established the fact, hitherto problematical, that the torrid zone was not only habitable, but also very populous and fertile. No longer did the black statues of the Canary Islands appeal to the fears of the traveller, and forbid him to go a step beyond that limit. Suddenly also was the Sea of Darkness illumined by the rays of the tropical sun, and soon were its waves opened up as a public highway to enterprising navigators. After new exploring expeditions to the kingdoms of Benin and Congo, the Portuguese, under Bartholomew Diaz, in 1493, reached the Cape of Good Hope, which was then called by him the Cape of Tempests, on account of the stormy aspect which it presented to them on its first appearance. In 1497, however, under the auspices of Emmanuel of Portugal, Vasco de Gama doubled the Cape of Good Hope, and reached India, after having sailed along the whole western and southern coast of Africa.

a short rest at the Canary Islands, were refitted on the 6th of September following. From that moment the crew of the little fleet, alarmed at the immensity of the ocean, and destitute of the hope of success to sustain their courage, cherished a thousand apprehensions which almost led them to despair. Despondency gave place to anger, and anger produced revolt. The energy of the great leader of the enterprise calmed these extravagant fears, and warded off the dangers with which even his life was threatened. Yet keen anguish continued to agitate his noble heart during those long and dreary nights when the land, indicated by certain customary signs, seemed to fly from his presence. At last, at ten o'clock on the night of the 11th of October, 1492, Columbus distinctly perceived a light. Some hours afterwards, the rising sun showed him in the distance the land which he sought. America was discovered!

The first land seen by Columbus was the island of Guanahani, which is now called San Salvador. The Spaniards discovered, in succession, the West India Islands, including Cuba and Hayti, which received the name of Hispaniola, and in 1497 Columbus set foot for the first time on the mainland of the continent of North America. It has been said that Amerigo Vespucci

visited, a year before Columbus, the coasts of Guiana and Terra Firma, now Venezuela; but this is mere conjecture. Two years later, however, this learned Florentine carefully reconnoitred the northern coast of South America.

In the space of a few years, constant accessions were made to these discoveries in the New World. In 1497, John Cabot, accompanied by his sons Lewis and Sebastian, discovered Newfoundland and Labrador, and is said to have sailed southward along the coast of North America as far as Florida. Yanez Pinzon, in 1500, reached Brazil, and three months after him, Alvarez Cabral landed on the same coast, which he transferred to the sovereignty of Portugal; while Gaspar Corteréal touched at the coast of Labrador, which had already been discovered by Cabot. Ponce de Leon, in 1512, landed in Florida. Three years later, the Rio de la Plata, or River Plate, was laid open to Europe by Juan Diaz de Solis. Magellan, one of the most illustrious of these early voyagers, in 1520, established the fact of the existence of the strait which bears his name, saw Tierra del Fuego, and reached the Philippine Islands, after having ploughed the Pacific Ocean, which Nunez de Balboa had taken possession of, in the name of the king of Spain! This Balboa was the first who saw, from the elevated shores of Central America, the waters of the great Pacific Ocean, which he named the South Sea. Now the Spaniards commenced the exploration of the new continent. The curiosity of Europe was raised to its highest pitch. An unknown and mighty world unfolded its wonders to bold adventurers, when Mexico, Guatemala, and Peru exhibited to the eyes of the astonished Europeans the splendours of their imperial cities, and their inhabitants told them of the priceless store of inexhaustible treasures that lay hid in the bowels of their mountains.

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CHRISTOPHER COLUMBUS.

Whilst the Portuguese were thus striking out a new route to the East Indies, the Spaniards were opening up America to Europe. The latter years of the fifteenth century made this double present to Christendom. The erroneous representations which the maps of the world presented at this period, and which, according to the authority of Ptolemy and the travels of Marco Polo, gave an exaggerated extent to Asia on the east, led Christopher Columbus to imagine that by sailing continually westward, it was possible to reach the continent of Asia and the East Indies. There was, besides, a vague but common belief that there existed towards the west a great unknown land. The history of all the difficulties which the illustrious Genoese met with in the execution of his project, and of all the obstacles which ignorance, indifference, and jealousy raised up against him is well known; but the facts of the discovery must be repeated here. The three vessels charged with this great exploring expedition set sail on the 3rd of August, 1492, and after

But the wealth of the men of the New World proved their ruin, and led to their speedy subjugation and the overthrow of empires and dynasties that were older, perhaps, than any that existed in that quarter of the globe from which their conquerors came. The sight of gold and silver used for purposes for which the baser metals were thought even too valuable in Europe; the indifference with which Mexicans and Peruvians alike regarded that which the Europeans looked upon as the only thing which could render life desirable; and the incredible news that, any day they liked, they could get more than a strong man could stagger under, at the price of a few hours' work with spade and pick, raised in the human vultures that had flocked west

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--- ssst ~,t. by Columbus, a hanger and thirst' sisfiable, that no amount of the -fy the one or allay the other. Am is in 1992, and the discovery the West India Islands, including , or St. Domingo, at which Columbus Le returned to Spain in the follownate colonisation of the Caribbean, of Panama or Darien, that links peat on.as of the American continent. yoki thɔ adventurous spirits in Spain who Among them were some whose སྐོ་ས་། ཉ་ར་སྙིང་་ ་མ་རྫོང་་་ས་ལུགས་བསྐོད་ཡོ vaus i tam from rising in their own country, wi eq t'he opportunity to make a name and Of these, the most notable was wal Ron of an unnatural parent, an and the Catholic and Isabella of all Spain, who cared so little for the 4 and hom of his bone," that he allowed the cond without care or culture, in no better the kospor of the hogs that wallowed in coyard But when Spain was echoing through 1 la, cl with the marvellous adventures of and thu discovery of the New World reached wan had in his obscurity, and turning his back untry without a sigh, he worked his passage cn country, where the base-born hewer of wood I could win as much wealth and honour as of the hidalgos of Spain, provided that he och bo w home and plan, sufficient determination and-nows strong enough to strike. Fong uk Darton on the Spanish main went Francis D Almagro a man who knew even less about than Pizarro did, and who took his name from a in wie u atroots he was picked up-and a host of paita with little better lineage to boast of than they In Laoatia, one of the recently established centres to The wouth of the Now World was steadily gravitating, Tached rose rapidly to a position of importance, daldoon was no more to him than an acorn had been 1. decyd his hogs to feed in the shady alleys of the oakBy plundering and robbing right and left, 1. Comach to make him long for more, when a rumour 4 him that the great gold-fields of the Western world found in Porn, and put him on the scent of playing it in the land of the Incas that Hernan Cortez had In the country of Montezuma. Cortez had upset a Edpovernment, that hold sway over an empire whose area Horn a thon and thousand square miles in extent, and 41ac pretty much as he pleased in Mexico, a city of 300,000 The out with only a trifling force of 600 or 700 Spaniards, lah lo lost a third before he reached the heart of the In the space of two years (1519-21) Cortez had reduced us and powerful country to the position of a Spanish

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ity, and what Cortez had done in Mexico, Pizarro could i

So thither he sailed from Panama in 1524, shup and about eighty men, and soon found out enough is that he was on the right track to increased with ot sl power. Bat hardships and privations quickly ... tanks of his followers, and he found it necessary to de couts to his standard before he attempt »d to carry ་་ ་་ ༤ After a hasty visit to Spain to obtain from

prisoner and strangled by order of Pizarro in 1538, while Pizarro himself was assassinated by D'Almagro's son in 1541.

Other leaders at the head of handfuls of men, so to speak, were equally, though not so notably, successful in other parts of the American continent; and fifty years had not elapsed from the time of the discovery of America, ere the whole of the country south of the Isthmus of Panama, and a very large portion of that on the north, had been reduced from the position of independent empires to that of dependencies of Spain and Portugal.

LESSONS IN GERMAN.—VI.

SECTION XIII.-NOUNS OF THE NEW DECLENSION.

NOUNS of the New Declension form their genitive by adding n
or en to the nominative, as:-Nom. Der Mensch, the man, the
human being; ter Herr, the lord, or Mr.; der Fürst, the prince;
Gen. Des Menschen, des Herrn, tes
ter Glepbant, the elephant, etc.
Nouns of this declension retain the
Fürsten, tes Elephanten, ze.
form of the genitive in the dative and accusative.
Nearly all masculine nouns that end in e belong to the New
Declension.

NEW DECLENSION OF THE NOUN.

N. Der gute Knabe, the good boy;
G. Des guten Knaben, the good boy's;
D. Dem guten Knaben, to the good boy;
A. Den guten Knaben, the good boy;

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des Herrn Acht bundert und vier-
zehn.

Der tar fere Ungar ist der Seine des
Nussen

Das tur tente Veilchen ist ein schönes
Grzeug nis res Grüb.ings.
Bertientes Brod ist suß
Gin qutes Gewissen ist ein fanftes

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The gallant Hungarian is the
enemy of the Russian.
The fragrant violet is a beau-

tiful production of the spring. Earned bread is sweet.

A good conscience is a soft pillow.

Many an industrious man is poor.

Want is the merited reward of

idleness.

EXERCISE 16.

1. Hat der Franzsie den Bein des Deutschen? 2. Ja, und der Deutsche bat das Juh tek Stanicien 3. Bo bat der Rune? 4. Er hat das Land der Be*** 5. Diner Orche in fein Arcane des Türfen. 6. Wer bat tak shore Ment dieled Craben? 7. Der Freunt rieses Griechen hat 8. Haben Sie den Særebröd Shrek Nefen? 9. Nein, ich babe ven 19. Schen Sie das Buch tiefes Knaben, eter 14 Barctiora Nein? 11. 34 babe tas Buch res Knaben, und meine See bet tas Bamat det Nefen ཀན པ 1:|: ཀ མ སཱ པཱཏྭཱ 2 མཱན ས 12 (ནིའིཏྟ ཐཱ ཙཏྭཱ ཨཙ Iwird der Frien 14. It Sam? 15. Men te Nathi no Creden Seth and rubice di spurngenā

the gooorship of the newly-discovered country, 14k to the Spanish main, and, by the aid of the conMexico equipped a second expedition against Porn. cabana which was then raging between the Inca. Atana pa Het Huawar favoured his attempts He took the and having wrang from him gold and silver niin pam twenty-two feet long by sixteen feet broad. Le could teach, he murdered him, seized his ent al. This country to be henceforth an appanage of tre Following up the good fortune of P.arro, who had. an Pizarro's Reutenant in the con anda into Chili to win a proves 17. Saben Sie das Buch des Grafen? to aim at making har of 18 Nen verbern der Prri bat dak Bus 19. Das Leben eines Soldaten Territorion in South Amer108, rå origand red pride 20. Saben Sie eine Monarchie ober einen amanted between the form s Am 21 oreka det teren Würden fendern Freiheit. 22. Ich th, for 1 Almagro was taken | Þabe eine goldene Übe um Sie haben einen Rübernen Bleistift.

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EXERCISE 17.

1. The writing-desk of the [tes] gallant Pole. 2. The life of a prince is unsafe. 3. The gallant Pole with [mit] the [tem] lively lebbaften] countenance [Gesicht] is an enemy of the Frenchman. 4. Is [it] he a friend of the good [guten] captain? 5. That [jener] soldier is the brother of his beautiful cousin [Cousine]. 6. The diligent son of the brisk German has a good [gutes] conscience.

SECTION XIV.-ABSOLUTE POSSESSIVES, ETC.

1. When mein, tein, sein, 2c. (§ 58) are not followed by an adjective or a noun, they are called absolute possessives, and are declined, as are also tein and ein, like an adjective of the Old Declension, as

Mein Hut ist groß, und sein-er (sein

Hut) ist klein.

Sein Hut ist groß, und mein-er (mein

Gut) ist klein.

Sein Buch ist neu, ihr-es (ihr Buch) ist alt, und Ihr-es (Ihr Buch) ist

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Er bat Geld, und Sie haben kein-es (fein Geld).

My hat is large, and his (his
hat) is small.

His hat is large, and mine (my
hat) is small.

His book is new, hers (her
book) is old, and yours (your
book) is beautiful.
He has money, and you have
none (no money).

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1. Hat dieser Tuchhändler gutes Tuch? 2. Ja, er hat gutes Tuch; und dieser Gerber hat gutes Leter. 3. Was hat der Barbier? 4. Er hat gute Seife. 5. Wer hat gutes Heu? 6. Dieser Bauer hat gutes Heu. 7. Was hat der Schmier? 8. Er hat gutes Gisen, und sein Bruder, der Papierhändler, hat gutes Papier, rothes, blaues, and weißes. 9. Haben Sie rothen oder weißen Wein? 10. Ich habe weter rothen, noch weißen. 11. Ihr Wein ist füß, aber dieser hier ist sauer. 12. Ihr rother Wein ist start, und der weiße Wein meines Nachbars ist schwach. 13. Hat dieser Müller gutes Mehl? 14. Ja, und dieser Bauer hat gutes Korn, guten Hafer, und gute Gerste. 15. Dieses Märchen hat eine schöne Stimme. 16. Mein Bruter hat etwas Schönes und ich habe nichts Häßliches. 17. Dieser

Gines and feines (the neuters) often drop the vowel of the final Mann hat nur ein wenig Gelt, und der andere hat gar keins. syllable; thus producing the forms eins and keine, as :—

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EXERCISE 19.

1. Has my brother, the tailor, black [schwarzes] or red cloth ? 2. The friend of my [meines] brother has good paper, red, blue [blaues], and white. 3. The son of the bookbinder has something of the [von dem] barber. 4. The beautiful daughter of the old blacksmith has a [einen] dog and a cat. 5. The diligent carpenter [Tischler] has something beautiful. 6. The draper is a son of the industrious merchant [Kaufmannes]. 7. The old tanner had not seen [geschen] the sly cat and the faithful dog. 8. Is the carpenter at home [zu Hause] ? No [nein], he is not. 9. Have you taken [genommen] something? I have taken nothing. 10. Has pump-water [Brunnenwasser] a sweet or a salt taste ? It has not [feinen] a salt taste, but [fontern] a sweet taste.

LESSONS IN DRAWING.-IV.

As it is necessary to dwell a little longer upon Parallel Perspective, in order to lay before our readers as many varied examples as we can in this division of the subject, we will for a few minutes restrict our observations to the details and method of drawing Fig. 32. But before taking up our pencil, let us say a few words upon a general principle of procedure, which merits the careful attention of all who are seeking to acquire a knowledge of Drawing by the aid of these lessons. There is doubt, the inquiry will be made by many, if not all, of our one question almost always asked by beginners, and as, no readers who wish to become good draughtsmen, we answer it now. The question we allude to is, "Where shall I begin?"

4. When an adjective is used with etwas " or,, nichts," it follows the Old Declension, and is written with a capital initial; This is a very natural query, and may be answered in more

38

Ich habe etwas Schönes, I have something beautiful.

Er sagt nichts Schlechtes, he says nothing bad.

Sie irrechen von etwas Neuem, you speak of something new. 5. German verbs are conjugated negatively in the present and imperfect tenses, without an auxiliary, like the English verbs "have" and "be;" as

3h babe nicht, I have not.

Er siebe nicht, he sees not does not see).

Er batte nicht, he had not.

than one way, according to the nature of the subject to be copied.

We wish our readers to understand that the instructions contained in these lessons apply to drawing from objects as well as drawing from copies, and the same method is to be observed in both cases. If the subject before us is a drawing of a building, as in Fig. 32, begin by drawing the line of sight; this line may be ruled, but let it be the only ruled line in the (heie hört nicht, she hears not (sho work. Then place the point of sight, and mark in the distance

Sie sind nicht, you are not.

does not hear).

Es war nicht, it was not.

of the nearest line to this point on each side of it, and then the succeeding ones, without passing over a single line. It is much

Ich sah nicht, I saw not (I did Sie liebten nicht, they loved not easier to mark in the distances between lines close together than

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when they are wide apart. The whole distance from P S to a is made up of the intermediate distances, P s a, a b, b c, c d, and dx, and if we correctly determine all the intermediate distances, we undoubtedly obtain the whole distance correctly. The reason we commence upon the line of sight from the point of sight is, because the eye is on a level with the parts of the subject on and near this line and point, from which we gradually extend our drawing to the outer limits. Once more we must impress upon our readers that this plan is to be followed when drawing from both copies and Nature, as it must be evident, when drawing from Nature, that the parts opposite the eye can b

more easily and correctly arranged for the commencement of a drawing than those parts which are much above, or to the right or left of the eye. We have frequently seen beginners sit down to draw a house from a copy, and commence with the chimney, scratching away without having made any settlement as to the walls, doors, windows, etc., and when they get to the bottom find it altogether out of proportion. Who can expect anything but difficulty and failure, if he attempt to copy a drawing after this manner? No, we must copy from copies as we would copy from objects. When we are seated opposite the house of which we are about to make a drawing, it will naturally occur to the mind that the parts most in view, and best seen and understood, must be the first to be drawn, for from them the proportions of

with the wall have the same vanishing point. A question may be asked with regard to the point of sight, as to whether the drawing, Fig. 33 (or any other where the point of sight is the principal vanishing point), could have been correctly made if the point of sight had been to the left of the door at g, instead of the right? Certainly it could. We have stated the point of sight determines the part of the building which is directly opposite us from the spot where we stand. This spot, remember, is called the "station point." If the point of sight had been to the left in this subject, we should not have seen such a broad extent of the retiring side of the projecting wall, ee; if it had been at h, we should not be able to see this retiring side at all, since we cannot see round a corner. Therefore

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all the rest of the subject are made and arranged. It very rarely occurs to any one, when drawing from the object, that to begin with the chimney is the right thing; then why should we do it when drawing from copies? When drawing a building, always commence with the parts opposite and on a level with the eye, and proceed to the foundation: then the superstructure may next be sketched, and the chimneys added last of all. Fellow this practice in drawing from copies, and then you will not find any difficulty when you are drawing from objects.

When the question, "Where are we to begin?" refers to ornament, or to an arrangement of objects which can be placed on a table, look well at the whole first; then examine it carefully to discover the principal lines and characteristic angles, and begin with those nearest to the centre, passing outwardly from all sides of the centre gradually, without allowing any line of importance to be unnoticed, that is, unmarked.

it will be evident that four or five persons might sit in a row, all draw the same object, and all produce correct drawings, though not all alike, arising from the difference of position, each having his own point of sight, and each drawing his retiring lines to that point.

We said, when giving an explanation of the definitions or fixed principles relating to retiring lines and planes, that the last (Definition 11) should engage our attention at a future time; we will now endeavour to make it clear with the help of a drawing, after repeating the definition itself, which was as follows:-"All lines inclined with the horizon and with the picture plane, have their vanishing points above or below the line of sight, according to the angle they form with the horizon, their vanishing points being always on a line perpendicular to the vanishing point upon the line of sight, to which they would have retired had they been horizontal."

In Fig. 32 the eye of the pupil will quickly recognise the In Fig. 33 the learner will perceive that the inclined retiring lines which go to the point of sight, and he will observe that lines are the lines of the roof ab and ed. If the roof had been flat the retir the window thrown open at a right angle-that is, horizontal-its line would have been ce, and would

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hereafter. He must, in copying this example, mark the distance from e to d in the usual manner, draw cd, and carry his pencil on to the perpendicular from P s; the vanishing point, v P, will then be a guide for the remaining inclined lines. The eye, in determining the positions and proportions of lines, is very deceptive; many have recourse to measuring, in order to ensure We beg the pupil not to measure; the understanding and the eye must be educated; and, as these

a correct outline.

not disdain to use a help which is not only true in principle, but a ready and decisive way of setting at rest every doubt and uncertainty relating to the treatment of these lines, which without vanishing points would be very difficult to determine. In Fig. 34, the lid of the box to the right inclines downwardthat is, the upper edge is nearest us-consequently, the VP of the lid is below the line of sight; the lid of the cellar retires upwards, having its V P above the line of sight.

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