LESSONS IN FRENCH.-IX. SECTION 1.-FRENCH PRONUNCIATION (continued). IV. NAME AND SOUND OF THE CONSONANTS. 50. F, f.-In the commencement and body of words, this letter is usually pronounced as the letter f in the English word for. It is sometimes sounded also in the end of words. There are several exceptions, however, which are best found in the French dictionary. In the French word neuf, which means nine, the f is silent when it precedes a word commencing with a consonant, thus:-neuf lis, nine lilies, is pronounced as if printed neu lis. But the striking peculiarity of this letter consists in the fact that it receives the sound of the letter v, as in the English word roir, before another word commencing with a vowel or h mute, and is joined with this word in pronunciation, as if it were its first letter, namely: Château, m., country house, villa. Cloche, f., bell (large), church-bell, etc. [bourhood. Fontaine, f., fountain, well. m., highway. Grand chemin, guildhall, city hall, town hall. Meuble, m., piece of furniture. Meubles, m. pl., furniture. Monnaie, f., mint. Allumette, f., match. Paroisse, f., parish. Pavé, m., pavement. Pépinière, f., nursery of trees. Poêle, m., stove. Porte, f., door, gate. Poste, f., post, post-office. Poutre, f., beam. Prairie, f., Pré, m., meadow. Puits, m., well. Quartier, m., quarter. Rampe (d'escalier), balustrade of a Rez-de-chaussée, m., ground floor. Salle, f., parlour, sitting-room. Salon, m., drawing-room, hall. Serre-chaude, f., hot-house. Serrure, f., lock. Sonnette, f., bell. Théâtre, m., theatre. Toit, m., roof. Tour, f., tower. Verger, m., orchard. Vestibule, m., hall, entry. Vigne, f., vignoble, m., vineyard. Village, m., village. Volet, m., window-shutter. 7. MEUBLES.-FURNITURE. Lit de plume, m., feather-bed. Allumette chimique, f., friction- Lumière, f., light. match. Amadou, m., tinder. Charbon de bois, m., charcoal. Commode, f., chest of drawers. Boeuf, m., beef. Lustre, m., sconce. Marchepied, m., footstool. Moutardier, m., mustard-pot. bellows. Soupière, f., soup-tureen. Sucrier, m., sugar-dish. Tableau, m., picture. Tablette, f., shelf. Théière, f., a tea-pot. Tire-bouchon, m., corkscrew. Tiroir, m., drawer. Traversin, m., bolster. Ustensiles de cuisine, m. pl., kitchen utensils. Verre, m., glass. 8. PLATS, ETC.-DISHES, ETC. Bouilli, m., boiled beef, boiled meat. Bouillon, m., broth. Confitures, f. pl., preserves. Cótelette, f., cutlet. Gâteau, m., cake. Jambon, m., ham. Mouton, m., mutton. Euf. m., egg. Omelette, f., omelet. Porc, m., pork. Rafraichissements, m. pl., refresh. ments. Gigot de mouton, m., leg of mutton. Rôti, m., roast meat. Saucisse, f., sausage. Ail, m. pl., aulx or aux, garlic. Asperge, f., asparagus. Betterave, f., beet. Blé, m., wheat. Carotte, f., carrot. Céleri, m., celery. Champignon, m., mushroom. Fève, f., bean. Herbe, f., herb. Millet, m., millet. Navet, m., turnip. Radis, m., turnip-radish, ETC.-FLOWERS, ETC. Pavot, m., poppy. Tournesol, m., sunflower. SECTION XVIII.-THE RELATIVE PRONOUN.-CARDINAL AND ORDINAL NUMBERS, ETC. 1. The relative pronoun, que, whom, which, that, and the conjunction que, that, are never omitted in French, and must be repeated before every verb depending on them [§ 109]. Les crayons que j'ai sont meilleurs The pencils (which) I have are better que ceux que vous avez, than those (which) you have. 2. Ne before the verb, and que after it, are used in the sense of only, but. 7. Before the word onze, the article le or la is not elided [§ 146] :: Nous avons le onze de Décembre, We have (it is) the eleventh of December. RÉSUMÉ OF EXAMPLES. L'ouvrier a-t-il les outils que vous Les maisons que j'ai sont-elles aussi Has the workman the tools which you have? Are the houses which I have as good as those which you have? How many francs have you? I have only ten franes, but my! brother has more than twenty (of them). Is it (have we) the fifteenth day of the month? 1. Le cheval que vous avez est-il bon ? 2. Il est meilleur que celui que vous avez et que celui de notre ami. 3. Combien d'enfants avez-vous ? 4. Je n'en ai qu'un, mais l'Italien en a moi. plus que 5. Avons-nous le dix Septembre ? 6. Non, Monsieur, nous avons le neuf Février. 7. Avez-vous ma cravate de soie ou ma cravate de mousseline? 8. J'ai l'une et l'autre. 9. Avez-vous huit kilogrammes de canelle? 10. Non, Monsieur, je n'en ai qu'un demi-kilogramme. 11. Combien de francs avezvous, Monsieur ? 12. Je n'ai qu'un demi-franc, mais mon ami a un franc et demi. 13. Votre sœur a-t-elle vingt-cinq centimes? 14. Oui, Monsieur, elle a un quart de franc. 15. N'avons-nous pas le premier Août? 16. Non, Monsieur, nous avons le six Septembre. 17. Est-ce aujourd'hui le dix? 18. Non, Monsieur, c'est le onze. 19. Votre frère a-t-il la première place? 20. Non, Monsieur, il a la dixième. 21. Votre menuisier a-t-il beaucoup d'outils? 22. Oui, Monsieur, il en a beaucoup. 23. Cet ouvrage a-t-il dix volumes ? 24. Non, Monsieur, il n'en a que neuf. 25. J'ai le sixième volume des œuvres de Molière et 19 premier volume de "L'Histoire de France" de Michelet. francs? EXERCISE 32. 1. Is that cinnamon good? 2. That cinnamon is better than yours and your brother's. (R. 1.) 3. What day of the month: is it to-day? 4. It is the sixth. 5. Has your father twenty 6. No, Sir, he has only six francs fifty centimes. 7. How many volumes has your work? 8. It has many, it has fifteen. 9. Has the joiner read (lu) the second volume of Miche let's "History of France ?" 10. Yes, Sir, he has read the second volume (of it). 11. Has your friend Molière's works? 12. He has only two volumes of them. 13. Have you my cloth coat or my velvet coat? 14. We have both. 15. We have this and 16. How much cinnamon have you? 17. We have two kilogrammes. 18. How many centimes has the merchant? 19. 21. I have neither the third nor the fourth, I have the tenth. He has twenty-six. 20. Have you the third or the fourth place? 22. Are you not ashamed to-day? 23. No, Sir, I am not ashamed, but I am afraid. 24. Have you a quarter of a frane? 25. No, Sir, but I have a half franc. 26. Is it (have we) the sixth of July? 27. No, Sir, it is (we have) the fourth of March. that. 6. The verb avoir, to have, is used actively [§ 26 (1)] for the 28. Has your uncle six children? 29. No, Sir, he has only one. day of the month. The verb être may also be used: jour du mois avons-nous ? avons le vingt, aujourd'hui le dix, What day of the month have we? We have the twentieth. To-day is the tenth, 30. Have you ten kilogrammes of meat? 31. I have only five kilogrammes. 32. Is the butcher's meat good? 33. It (elle) is not very good. 34. How many kilogrammes have you (of it)? 35. I have only two, but my brother has four. LESSONS IN PENMANSHIP.-IX. On inspecting any copy-slip that has the letter 1 in it, it will be found that the letter p extends as far below the line b b as THE letter p is the first letter that the learner has met with the letter 1 extends above the line a a. That portion of the that extends below the line b b, and it will be necessary here to letter p which extends above the line a a is longer by one-sixsay something about its proportions, as they are given in Copy-teenth of an inch than the distance to which the letter t extends slips Nos. 28, 30, and 31. It will be remembered that in "large text," the distance between the lines a a, b b, that contain what we have called the body of the letter, is, or ought to be, exactly half an inch; and as the line c c is midway between the lines a a, b b, the distance above the same line, or the distance between the top of the bottom-turn of the letter i and the dot above it, as may be seen by examining Copy-slips Nos. 30 and 31. We have been thus particular in dwelling upon the distances to which letters such as t, 1, h, p should extend above a a, or ƒ between each of these lines and the central line, c c, is a quarter of an inch. Now the distance between a a and the line ff, at which the long straight stroke of the letter p is commenced, is also a quarter of an inch, and is equal to the distance between a a and c c, or between b b and c c. The distance between bb and g 9, the line at which the long straight stroke terminates, is rather less than half an inch, or, to speak in exact terms, just seven-sixteenths of an inch; that is to say, if an inch were divided into sixteen equal parts, the distance between bb and g g is equal to seven of them, while the distances fa, a c, c b, on the straight line fg, are each equal to four-sixteenths of an inch, which is merely another expression for a quarter of an inch, as our learners will find when they have got on far enough in Arithmetic to be working at Vulgar Fractions. below b b, in order to induce the learner to pay strict attention to the relative proportions of his letters. The importance of this will be seen by any one who is curious enough to extend these letters to a greater or less length above a a, or below b b, than is allotted for their extension in our Copy-slips. The general appearance of handwriting that would otherwise be good, is often completely spoiled by a want of proper proportion in the heads, loops, and tails of the letters. Those who wish to be distinguished for writing a plain and legible hand, must aim at the neatness and beauty of the writing that is found in old deeds, and books copied by the monks who lived before ** time of Caxton. The letters of these famous penmer regular in their proportions and as sharply and deli fined as if they had been carefully printed from well-c LESSONS IN ARITHMETIC.-IX. LEAST COMMON MULTIPLE. This method of arrangement evidently gives the greatest number of times which each prime factor occurs in any one of the given numbers. Thus 2 occurs three times in 72, 3 occurs 1. ONE number is called a multiple of another when it can be twice in 72, and 7 occurs only once-viz., in 42 and 84. divided by the latter without a remainder. Thus, a measure and a multiple are the converse of each other. If a number divides another without remainder, it is said to be a measure of it, and the latter number is said to be a multiple of the first. A common multiple of two or more numbers is a number which can be divided by each of them without a remainder. It will clearly be a composite number, of which each of the given numbers must be a factor, for it could not otherwise be divided by them. The same numbers may clearly have an infinite number of common multiples, for any one common multiple having been found, another may be obtained by multiplying it by any number. The continued product of two or more numbers will always give a common multiple of those numbers. The least common multiple of two or more numbers is the least number which can be divided by each of them without a remainder. Thus, 70 is the least common multiple of 2, 5, and 35. 2. The least common multiple of two or more numbers is evidently composed of the continued product of all the different prime factors which compose the given numbers, each one being | repeated as often as the greatest number of times it occurs in any one of the numbers. For if it did not contain all the prime factors of any one of the numbers, it could not be divided by that number. On the other hand, if any prime factor were employed more times than it is repeated in any one of the given numbers, it would not be the least common multiple. For the sake of brevity the words "least common multiple" are sometimes written L. C. M. 3. EXAMPLE. Find the L. C. M. of 12, 126, and 735. These are respectively equal to 2 × 2 × 3, 2 × 3 × 3 × 7, 3 x 5 x 7 x 7. Now 2, 3, 5, 7 are all the different prime factors which occur in any of the numbers; and the greatest number of times which 2 occurs is twice-namely, in the first; the greatest number which 3 occurs is twice-namely, in the second; 5 only occurs once-namely, in the third; and the greatest number of times which 7 occurs is twice-namely, in the third. Hence the L. C. M. required will be 2 × 2 × 3 × 3 x 5 x 7 x 7; that is, 8820. 4. The process, then, of finding the least common multiple of two or more numbers is reduced to that of splitting up the numbers into their prime factors. This may be effected, however, by a more convenient method of arrangement than splitting each number separately into factors would be, for which we give the following Rule for finding the least common multiple of two or more numbers. Write down the numbers in a straight line apart from each other. Divide by the least number which is a measure of two or more of them, and set down the quotients and the undivided numbers in a line below. Take again the least number which is a measure of two or more of these numbers last set down, and perform the same operation as before. Continue it until there are no two numbers which can be divided by any number greater than unity. The continued product of all the divisors, and the numbers set down in the last line, will be the least common multiple required. 5. EXAMPLE.-To find the L. C. M. of 12, 42, 72, and 84. EXERCISE 21. 1. Find the least common multiple of the following numbers:1. 15 and 45. 2. 63 and 18. 3. 6, 9, and 15. 4. 8, 16, 18, and 24. 5. 9, 15, 12, 6, and 5. 8. 36, 25, 60, 72, and 35. 13. 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, and 9. 14. 657, 350, 876, 1095, 2190, and 5795. 15. 42, 12, 84, and 72. 16. 9, 12, 72, 36, and 144. 17. 8, 12, 20, 24, and 25. 18. 63, 12, 84, and 7. 19. 54, 81, 63, and 14. LESSONS IN GERMAN.—VIII. SECTION XVI-USE OF THE DEFINITE ARTICLE; PROPER NAMES, ETC ETC. THE plural of Mann is Männer; except in compounds, where it is generally Leute ($ XV. Note), as Lantminn, countryman; Lantfeute, country-people. Zimmermann carpenter; 3immerleute, carpenters. Hauptmann, captain; Hauptleute, captains. Kaufmann, merchant; Kaufleute, merchants. Velf corresponds mainly to our word people. Unlike this, however, it has different forms for the two numbers, as :- -Dic Franzosen sind ein lebhaftes Volf; the French are a lively people. Die Jürsten schwelgen, und das Bolf feiret; the princes revel, and the people suffer. Alle Völker auf Grten, 1 Mofes xviii. 18; all the nations of the earth, Genesis xviii. 18. The word one, as a pronoun, is, in English, often inserted after an adjective, to avoid the repetition of the noun; in Ger. man, however, the adjective in such a case stands alone, as :Er hat einen guten Hut. und ich habe einen schlechten: he has a good hat, and I have a bad (one). Ich habe gute Hüte, und er hat schlechte, I have good hats, and he has bad (ones). Er hat guten Wein, und ich habe schlechten, he has good wine, and I have bad (wine). The adjective and participle preceded by an article are often used substantively, as well in the singular as in the plural, as:Der Zufrierene (Sect. IX. 2) ift glücklich; the contented (man) is happy. Die Zufrierene ist glücklich; the contented (woman) is happy. Die Zufriedenen sind glücklich; the contented are happy, Ein Zufriedener (Sect. X.) ist glücklich; a contented (man) is happy. Der Sterbente, die Sterbente; the dying (man), the dying (woman). Die Lebenten: the living. article, converted into abstract nouns, as :-Er verehrt das Schöne : 1. Adjectives in German are often, by means of the definite he adores the beautiful. 2. The use of the definite article before nouns, taken in a generai sense, is much more frequent than in English, as:-Der diamond is a precious stone. Der Diamant ist ein Erelstein; the Tiger ft flink: the tiger is agile. Das Gold ist ein evels Metall; (the) gold is a precious metal. Die Luft ist ein Element; the air is an element. Das Wasser ist ein Element; (the) water is an element. Die Seele ist unsterblich; the soul is immortal. Der Mensch i fterblich; (the) man is mortal. Die Faulheit ist ein Laster; (the) idle ness is a vice. The plural is used in the same manner, as:-Die Tiger sind flink, (the) tigers are agile. 3. The definite article is sometimes used instead of the pos sessive pronouns, as:- -Er hat ein Buch in der Hant; he has a The process will be sufficiently understood from the following book in the (his) hand. Das Kind ist bei dem Vater; the child is working: 2) 12, 42, 72, 84 2) 6, 21, 36, 42 3) 3, 21, 18, 21 7) 1, 7, 6, 7 1, 1, 6, 1 Hence the L. C. M. is 6 x 7 x 3 x 2 x 2; that is 504. with the (its) father. 4. Proper names and titles are often preceded by the defi nite article, as:- -Wo ist der Heinrich? where is (the) Henry? Der Kaiser Heinrich, the Emperor Henry. Der König Heinrich; (the) King Henry. The definite article likewise commonly precedes the adjective qualifying a proper name, as:-Die schöne Helene; the beautiful Helen. Der arme Richard; (the) poor Richard. The article is also generally used before the word Schule, Kirche, Markt, Mühle, :c., as :-Er ist in der Schule; he is (in) at (the) school. Er ist in der Kirche; he is (in) at (the) church. Grift auf tem Markt; he is at the market. Er ist in der Mühle; he is in the Der Herr Gesant'te ist so eben mit mill. Er geht nach der Mühle; he is going to (the) mill. 5. The word Herr, when placed before a proper name, answers to our Mr., as:-Ift Herr N. hier? is Mr. N. here? Frau in the like position signifies Mrs., as :-Wo ist Frau N.? where is Mrs. N. Präulein, thus placed, answers to our word Miss, as:-Fräulein N. ist hier; Miss N. is here. Guten Morgen, Herr N., Frau N, Fräulein N.; good morning, Mr. N., Mrs. N., Miss N. Instead of Frau the French Matam is often used, as :-Madam R.; Mrs. N. In address, when the name is omitted, the possessive pronoun precedes the words Herr and Fräulein, as :-Guten Morgen, mein Herr, mein Fräulein; good morning, Sir, Miss. In the plural the form of address is: Meine Herren! Gentlemen! Meine Damen! Ladies! Meine Fräulein! Young ladies! The word Fräulein, when connected with the name, is used like its corresponding word in English, as:-Cind die Fräulein N. zu Saue? Are the Misses N. at home? In ceremonious address the word Herr is prefixed to titles, as:-Herr Präficent; Mr. President. Herr Sprecher; Mr. Speaker. Herr Bafter; (Mr.) Pastor. Herr Oberst; (Mr.) Colonel. Herr Profer: (Mr.) Professor. Herr Lehrer; (Mr.) Teacher. Herr Ritter; Sert, preceded by the definite article, is applied to these titles as well in the third person as in the second, as :-Wo ist der Herr Brafitent? Where is the (Mr.) President? Wissen Sie, wo der Herr Oberst ist? Do you know where the (Mr.) Colonel is ? Sir Knight. OES.-The words in parentheses are the literal translations of the German; they are given that the pupil may clearly perceive the different modes of expression of the two languages. PecuEarities of this kind are called "the idiom of a language," and the differences "differences of idiom." The word Frau is prefixed to titles or appellations of women, :-Frau Gönnerin; Lady Patroness. Frau Aebtissin; Lady Ab bess. Frau Gemahlin; Lady Consort. These words are also prefixed to designations of relationship, as:-Wo ist Ihr Herr Bater? Where is your (Mr.) father? Sein Herr Bruter ist hier. His (Mr.) brother is here. Ist Ihre Frau Mutter zu Hause? Is your (Mrs.) mother at home? Ihre Fräulein Schwester war ta. Your (Miss) sister was there. seiner Frau Gemahlin ab'gereist. Nehmen Sie auf dem Sopha gefäl. Frau N., ihre Fräulein Tochter, und EXERCISE 21. 1. Die Zimmerleute, Schreiner, Schneider, und Maurer sind Handwerker. 3. Die Englänter sind 2. Die Bergleute arbeiten in der Tiefe der Erie. ein ruhiges Volk. 4. Fleißige Hantwerksleute verdienen in America viel Geld. 5. Der Reiche hat einen guten Rock, und der Bettler einen schlechten. glücklichen. 8. Die Ungelehrte beneitet die Gelehrte. 6. Der Tugendhafte scheut das Lafter. 7. Der Glückliche bedauert den Un9. Das Gelehrte ist 11. Frau nicht immer das Nüßliche. 10. Herr N. ist in rem Zimmer. N. ist in dem Theater. 12. Ich gehe mit Ihnen, mein Herr. 13. 3ch 14. Ich war gestern wünsche Ihnen einen guten Morgen, mein Fräulein. 15. Frau N. ist sehr munter. tie Frau Gesandtin nicht. 17. Der Herr Minister ist ebenfalls dort. in einer Damengesellschaft. 16. Ich sehe 18. 19. Guten Abend, Herr Profeffor. Die Frau Hofräthin hat Trauer. 20. Wo ist Ihre Frau Gemahlin, Ihr Herr Sohn, und Ihre Fräulein Tochter? 21. Sie sind in dem Gencert. 22. Vom (§ 4. 2) Erhabenen zum Lächerlichen ist nur ein Schritt. 23. Der Reiche hat zwei Häuser, drei Knechte, vier Pferte, zwölf Ochsen, und achtzig Schafe. 24. Dieser Jäger hat fünf unte, und jener hat acht. EXERCISE 22. 1. The Germans are a diligent people. 2. My father knows [fennt] a learned professor, but an unfortunate (one). 3. The unlearned [Ungelehrte] avoids the learned. 4. The dying (man) has a book [Buch] in his hand. 5. He adores the beautiful and the sublime. 6. Gold is a precious metal, silver is likewise, but copper [Kupfer] and iron are [sint] not. 7. Have you seen poor Henry and little Helen? 8. Your friend, the captain,+ was in the theatre. 9. I see the colonel yonder in the garden. 10. Good morning, president. 11. Is your mother at [u] home [Hause] P 12. Good [guten] evening [Abent], Sir; where is your sister and your brother? LESSONS IN DRAWING.—V. WE cannot urge too strongly on our pupils the necessity of The position when drawing. In Fig. 35 the proper position of the paper on which you are drawing, and the copy which you are endeavouring to imitate, is clearly shown. Your paper should be placed before you on a desk, with a slight inclination of about two or three inches in a foot, or on a flat and perfectly level piece of board, to which it may be secured by flat-headed drawing-pins, and which may be supported at the proper inclination on a book or a piece of wood, as at b. The drawing which you are copying should be supported as at a, by a light easel or frame with a leg, fastened by a hinge to the upper part of it, by which the inclination of the frame may be regu lated at pleasure. The position in which you sit should be perfectly easy, and in no way painful to the chest. There is no necessity for lean Zwei, two; trei, three; vier, four; zwolf, twelve; achtzig, eighty; fünf, five; acht, eight. Remember that in German "the captain" must be rendered "the Mr. Captain," etc. |