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Grau, theurer Freund, ist alle
Theorie,

Doch grün des Lebens goltner
Baum.

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A B L I C F V Hr.
K L M N O P Q R
U V W X Y Z Nt

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Exercise 3. Aufgabe 3.

Aachen, Berlin, Lölu. Dresden-
Ems, Frankfurt: Gotha, Hamburg-
Innspruck. Jena! Königsburg;
Leipzig, Mainz Nürnberg. Ofen,
Pasth. Gürbeck: Rastatt. Stettin,
Trier, Ulm. Vaduz, Winn,
Danton. Vyern. Zürich.

ABCDEFGHIJK

LMNOPQRSTU

V W X Y Z. ST.

abcdefghijklmn

opqrstuv w x y z.

ä ö ü ck sch ss st sz tz.

EXERCISE 3. Aufgabe 3.

Aachen (Aix-la-Chapelle),
Berlin, Cöln (Cologne),
Dresden,

Ems, Frankfurt, Gotha,
Hamburg,

Innspruck, Jena, Königsberg,

Leipzig, Maine (Mayemool,

Nürnberg (Nuremberg),
Ofen,

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Qachock (Quebec), Trier, Ulm, Vadar, Wien

Quebeck Rastatt, Stettin,

(Vienna),

Xanton, Ypern, Zürich.

Grau, theurer Freund, ist alle Theorie,

Grau, theurer Freundist alle Theorie-
Doch goin des Lebens goldner Baum. Doch grün des Lebens
grün

SECTION IV.-THE ARTICLE AND THE VERB.

goldner Baum.

another thus, in French, apple (la pomme) is feminine, while grape (le raisin) is masculine. In German the word head (ter

In German the definite Article has, in the Nominative singular, er) is masculine; in French (la tête) it is feminine; and in

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Der Brauer bat Wein, Sie haben
Kaffee, und ich babe Wasser.
Das Werk bat Deut. das Kind bat
Brod, und das Märchen bat Thee.

lint, and.

Was? what?

Waffer, n. water.
Wein, m. wine.
Wer? who?

The brewer has wine, you have
coffee, and I have water.
The horse has hay, the child has
bread, and the girl has tea.

EXERCISE 4.

Mehl, oder das Brod? 14. Er hat das Mehl. 15. Hat der Bäcker den
Wein, oder das Wasser? 16. Er hat das Wasser. 17. Lieben Sie den
Bauer? 18. Nein, ich liebe den Lehrer. 19. Haben Sie Fleisch, oder
Wein? 20. Ich habe das Fleisch. 21. Haben Sie das Brot, oder den
Zucker? 22. Ich habe das Brod. 23. Hat der Vater das Buch, oder den
Kamm? 24. Er hat das Buch.

LESSONS IN LATIN.—II.

SECTION II.-PRELIMINARY INSTRUCTIONS IN THE VERBS. IN regard to the exercises which I am about to give, you should first learn the vocabulary by heart. If yours is a mechanical trade, you may repeat the words over again and again while 1. Wer hat Brod? 2. Der Vacker bat Brod. 3. Hat ter Bäcker engaged in labour. Or you may make the words your own Mebl 4. Ja, er bat auch Mebl. 5. Was hat der Müller? 6. Der while walking to and from your employment. Among my perWaller bat Mebt und Kern. 7. Wer bat Fleisch? 8. Der Fleischer hat sonal friends is a gentleman who acquired the greater part of 9. Haben Sie Vier? 10. Nein, der Brauer hat Bier. 11. the words of the French language, while rising and dressing in Haben Sie Wein 12. Nein, ich habe Kaffee. 13. Was hat das Mar. the morning. Thousands of words have I myself learnt while den? 14. Das Matchen bat Thee. 15. Hat ter Brauer Korn? 16. walking for recreation. Nein, er bat nur Bier und Wein. 17. Was hat das Kind? 18. Gs dat Wasser. 19. Hat es auch Brot? 20. Ja, es hat Brot und auch Fletch.

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Having thoroughly mastered the vocabulary, take a slate and write down the Latin into English; then write the English into Latin. Look over what you have done carefully. Correct every mistake and error. If you look into the exercises you will find that the English will assist you in writing the Latin, and the Latin will assist you in writing the English. When you have got both the Latin and the English into as correct a state as you can, copy them neatly into a note-book. Having with the rule or the direction, and also the example. Leave done so, read them carefully over, and compare each instance nothing until you understand the reason. All the examples or illustrations that I give, as well as the chief rules, should be committed to memory. ascertain that you are master of the first. Before you proceed to a second lesson, It would be useful to write out the rules in one consecutive view, in order that, having them all at once under your eye, you may study them in their connection and as a whole, so as to see their bearing one upon another, and the general results to which they lead. Such a practice would have a very beneficial effect on your mind, by habituating it to arrangement and order, and might be expected to afford you valuable aid, both in other studies and in your business pursuits. Carefully avoid haste and slovenliness. Do your best in all that you undertake. "Well," not "much," should be your watchword. Repeated reviews of the ground passed over are very desirable. Every Saturday you should go carefully over what you have done during the week. At the end of every month the work of the month should be reviewed. On arriving at a natural division of our subject-as for instance, when we have treated of the nouns-you should go over, and put together in your mind the substance of what has been said thereon. "Let us not be weary in well doing: for in due season we shall reap, if we faint not." (Gal. vi. 9.)

VOCABULARY.

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Find English words derived from some part of curro; find English words derived from curro, with in prefixed; also with con prefixed; also with dis prefixed; also with er prefixed.

Remark. In order to make my meaning quite clear, I will myself do this exercise in part. From cursus comes the English word course; from in and curs comes incursion; from ex and curs comes excursion. If the reader is acquainted with, or is learning French, he will do well, as he passes on, to find out French words corresponding to, and derived from, Latin words; as in courir, French to run; cours, a course. By comparison he may occasionally find that the same sound or word has a different meaning in French from what it has in Latin or in English. Thus, concursus in Latin means a coming together, as to a meeting, a concourse of people; but the corresponding

French, concours, signifies co-operation. So concurrence in English is agreement, but in French competition. By practising comparisons such as this, you will not only meet with many curious facts, but be assisted to understand the nature of language itself, as well as receive good mental discipline. If it seems strange to you that the same letters curr or curs should bear dissimilar meanings, a little reflection on the matter will soon take away your surprise. Let us go at once to the primary meaning of curr, Its primary meaning is to run. Now, men may run into, or run out of, or run together, or run about, for different purposes. For instance, they may run together in harmony, and then they concur; or they may run together in rivalry, and then they are in what the French call concurrence,

that is, competition.

I have thus, my fellow-student, opened out before you an immense field. It is only a hint or two that I can give; but if you follow these intimations, you will in time become not only

a Latin scholar, but a good linguist.

In the former part of this lesson I had to employ the word curro, and in so doing I used particularly the form curr. This form is called the stem of the word. The stem of a word is that which contains its essential letters, or the letters which are

necessary to make it what it is. Thus, curr is found in every form into which the verb curro passes. Observe that the second r is added merely to strengthen the word, or give force in pronunciation. You find this stem, cur or curs, for instance, in the English words current, incur, concourse, concurrence, discourse. Observe again, that many of our Latin words have come to us through the French. They have, therefore, entered the English in the form which they had received in the French. This is exemplified in concourse and discourse, where an o has been introduced by the French pronunciation, as these words come to us immediately from the French words concours and discours.

The stem of a word is found generally by cutting off the final vowel or syllable. In curro you obtain the stem curr by taking away the o. The o in reality is the sign of the first person singular, or I. The word for I is not prefixed in Latin, except when it is required for emphasis, because the terminations of the verb show clearly what person is meant that is, whether it is the first person, I, or the second person, thou, or the third person, he. In the English there is a necessity for the constant use of the personal pronoun, because the endings of the verb are not so different from each other as in the Latin. Thus, in English, we say, I run, thou runnest, he runs, we run, you run, they run. Here, out of six persons, the verb has the same termination for four-namely, I run, we run, you run, they run. But for the pronouns I, we, you, they, the reader or listener would not be aware from the use of the verb which person was intended. In the Latin, however, the verb has a peculiar ending for every person. After this explanation, we will call these terminations person-endings. These personendings vary with the tense and the voice; that is, they are different in the past tense from what they are in the present tense; and they are different in the passive voice from what they are in the active voice. At present we will confine ourselves to the present tense and the active voice. In curro, the person-endings of the present tense, indicative mood, active voice, are as follow:- :

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ACTIVE VOICE.-INDICATIVE MOOD. PRESENT TENSE of the verb curro, I run. 1st person curro, I run 1st person currimus, we run curris, thou runnest 2nd curritis, you run currit, he runs 3rd currunt, they run. These person-endings vary also in another way, which I proceed to explain. Latin verbs are commonly divided into four classes, which bear the technical name of conjugations. This division may not be the best, but it is that which is customary, and therefore I retain it. These four classes or conju

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long before re of the infinitive; the second by having è long; We say then that the first conjugation is known by having a the third by having e short; the fourth by having i long. The same fact may be put before you in a different way; thus, ā long is characteristic of the first conjugation; è long, of the it may be remarked, that in the first conjugation a long presecond; short, of the third; i long, of the fourth. In general vails; in the second, è long prevails; in the third, ě short prevails; and in the fourth, i long prevails. conjugation. The person-endings in it will not therefore be the in amo are o, as, at; amus, atis, ant. In the tables or paradigms same as they are in the verb amo, I love. The person-endings (patterns), which I am about to give, the person-endings are printed in italics, as amo, amas, amat; you will therefore easily recognise them, and ought in all cases to repeat them until you have imprinted them on your memory.

Now, curro, of which I have spoken before, is of the third

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EXAMPLE.-Amare, to love; stem, am.

PRESENT ACTIVE INDICATIVE.
Singular.

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2nd 3rd

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I love

PRESENT PASSIVE INDICATIVE.

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Singular.

1st per. Amór, I am loved 2nd Amáris, thou art loved 3rd Amátur, he is loved Plural.

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1st per. Amó, 2nd Amás, thou lovest 3rd Amát, he loves Plural. 1st per. Amámus, we lore 1st per. Amámur, we are loved Amátis, you love Amamini, you are loved Amánt, they love Amántur, they are loved. Observe, then, that in order to form any person, you must first get the stem, by cutting off the last syllable. Then to the stem thus obtained, add the proper person-ending. Suppose you have to deal with the verb laudo, I praise; and suppose you want to express in Latin the English they praise; the way to proceed is-throw away the o in laudo; by so doing, you get laud; now, they praise is in the third person plural; the personending of the third person plural is ant, as shown above; subjoin ant to laud, and you have laudant, which means they praise. Or if you have to put laudas into English, by looking at the table you find that its termination-namely, as-is the personending of the second person singular, and consequently laudes means thou praisest. I have entered into this full and minute explanation once for all. If you take pains to make yourself master of it, you will not require its repetition. But take care not merely to consult the tables I give; you must commit them to memory, and never pass on until you have made them in each case your own. Having learnt the form or example, learn the vocabulary, and then put the Latin exercise into English, and the English exercise into Latin. Do this also from memory; but after you have done it, compare your translation with the table or example, and correct it accordingly.

Discover and write down the English representatives of the Latin words here used; that is to say, the English words derived from these Latin words. For instance, from delecto, I delight, we have delight, delightful, delightfully; from orno, I adorn, we have ornament, ornamentally, adorn, adornment; from educo (which properly means I draw out), we have to educate, educator, education. Do the same after every separate exercise.

What I have called "the characteristic" of the verb, may be called the sign of the conjugations. Thus, of the first conjugation a long is the sign, and è is the sign of the third. These are Latin signs. Of the corresponding part of the English verb, to is the sign; that is, the preposition to is in general ↑ English sign of the infinitive mood.

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under Egypt-under evidently signifying farther to the south than the latter country. The ancients generally believed that Africa and Asia, or rather Ethiopia and India, were united by land still farther to the south, and they consequently considered the Ethiopians and Indians as near neighbours. This is the ground on which both Virgil and Lucan have supposed the Nile to take its rise on the frontiers of India.

At the Homeric epoch the Greeks generally considered that the earth existed in the form of a disc. This disc was supposed to be centrally divided by the Euxine or Black Sea, the Egean Sea, and the Mediterranean Sea into two parts, the one north and the other south; these parts were at a later period designated by Anaximander under the names of Europe and Asia, names which had been previously understood in a more restricted sense. The river Phasis in Colchis, or Pontus, on the east, and the Pillars of Hercules, or Strait of Gibraltar, on the west, were supposed to mark the limits of the world. The country of the Cimmerians, who were afterwards confounded with the Cimbri; and of the Macrobians, so called because they were supposed to be longerlived than other mortals; Elysium, a happy country which had no existence but in the fantasies of the mind; the Fortunate Isles, which at a later period, under the names of Atlantis and Meropis, were the object of the philosophic fictions of Plato and Theopompus; the country of the Arimaspi, who saw so clearly because they had only one eye; of the Gryphons, who guarded the precious metals of the Riphean mountains; Colchis, the country of magic, peopled with monsters and prodigies;-all these and many other ingenious fables, the offspring of the imaginations of the poets Homer and Hesiod, or rather of the people among whom they lived, were mixed up with notions purely geographical, and constituted the world at that period a scene of marvels, a receptacle of agreeable delusions on the one hand and formidable mysteries on the other.

HOMER, who wrote his poems in the tenth century before the Christian era, appears to have been acquainted with Greece, the Archipelago, the island of Crete, and the coast of Asia on the shores of the Mediterranean. Within these limits he appears to have travelled, and he was, no doubt, personally acquainted with some of the scenes which he describes. His works, however, show that the geographical knowledge of the Greeks was at that time more limited than that of the Egyptians in the time of Moses, who lived seven centuries before him. On the south, the Greeks only knew the valley of the Nile, and that part of Africa which extends from Egypt to the west as far as Cape Bon, and the commencement of the Atlas chain of mountains; and on the east, the Syrian desert, Asia Minor, Mesopotamia, and Persia. They possessed only very confused notions of the Adriatic Sea, of Sicily,

and of the south of Italy; and with the greater part of the Italian peninsula they were wholly unacquainted.

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During the historic ages of Greece cosmological systems were multiplied to an endless extent. Thales said that the earth was a sphere; his disciple Anaximander taught that it was a cylinder. Leucippus said that it was a drum, and Heraclides that it was a boat. Many and curious were the notions the ancient philosophers held concerning the globe until voyages of discovery were begun. Herodotus made a great step in the descriptive geography of certain regions, especially in the east of Europe. Yet, notwithstanding his voyages into the three parts of the old world, he fills his narrative with childish tales and dreamy details. He only knew the names of Arabia, Iberia (or Spain), Gallia (or France), the islands of Albion (Great Britain), and the Cassiterides (or Scilly Isles). He had correct notions on Africa, and particularly on Egypt, but the western part of this continent was unknown to him beyond Tripoli. His details on India, besides their uncertainty, are intermingled with fables taken from the legends or popular creeds of the extreme East. Among the tales more or less ingenious, we must not forget the ants that were as large as foxes, and that collected heaps of gold mixed with sand!

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THE WORLD ACCORDING TO THE GREEKS AT THE HOMERIC EPOCH.

Previous to the Homeric epoch, the Greeks believed in the existence of nations who inhabited the countries situated behind the regions where the sun appeared to them to rise and to set. They imagined that these nations lived in perpetual darkness, and they called them Cimmerians, a word evidently derived from the Hebrew Cimeririm (pronounced Kimeririm), and signifying darkness. In proportion as they became acquainted with more regions that were enlightened by the sun (that is, as the limits of the known world were extended by voyage and discovery), they transported the Cimmerians and their dark abodes to a greater distance. In those early times the Cimmerians were supposed to inhabit the borders of the Black Sea, near the Thracian Bosphorus, Italy, and the distant countries on the east and west, where the world was supposed to terminate. The people who were supposed to live the farthest north were called Hyperboreans, because they were placed beyond Boreas, or in the extreme north; and those who lived the farthest south were called Ethiopians literally, sunburnt-because they were situated more directly under the sun's rays; their country lay south of Egypt, afterwards called Ethiopia sub Egypto, or Ethiopia

Herodotus appears to have been unacquainted with western Europe. He does not speak of Massilia (Marseilles), a city founded by the Phocæans about 600 B.C., more than a century before he was born. Rome, which had been increasing in grandeur for about three hundred years before his time, is not even mentioned by name. Of Italy he only knew the south of that part anciently called Magna Graecia. The extreme west of Africa was equally unknown to the Greeks, yet the Phoenicians had made discoveries in the Atlantic Ocean, and the periplus (sailing round) or coasting voyage of Hanno was executed considerably before Herodotus. The African voyage of the Cartha

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ginian admiral, with the thirty thousand persons whom he had on board his vessels, is acknowledged to be authentic; opinions only differ as to the point where his maritime course terminated. Some will have it that, after having cleared the Pillars of Hercules, he went as far as the Gulf of Guinea, while others limit his exploratory voyage to the mouth of the Senegal river. Gosselin fixes the limit at Cape Nun.

Pytheas, a citizen of Marseilles, performed a voyage to the north before the time of Alexander the Great. He discovered Albion, or Great Britain, and always sailing in a northern direction, he reached the mysterious place called Ultima Thule, which he saw covered with ice, enveloped in mist, and, as it were, immersed in a horrible chaos. But what was Thule? This is a question which has puzzled all historians and geographers. Some have considered with good reason that this country was Jutland or the coasts of Norway called Thulemark; or perhaps Iceland, as Pytheas sailed through the Scandinavian seas, and his remarks relating to the coasts of the Baltic have been acknowledged exact. Others have claimed this appellation for the Shetland Isles on the north of Scotland.

Aristotle, the great Greek philosopher and naturalist, maintained that the earth was of a spherical form, and he even stated the measure of its circumference at 400,000 stadia (a Greek itinerary measure, equal to about 600 feet). Indications of the existence of Madagascar have been noticed in his writings. As to Ceylon, he mentions it under the name of Taprobane, and that a long time before the age of Ptolemy. The limits of the world according to Aristotle were, on the east, the Indus; on the west, the Tartessus, or the Guadalquivir; on the north, the Riphæan Mountains, Albion, and Ierne (Ireland); on the south, Libya, in which he places the river Chremetes, which rises out of the same mountains as the Nile, in order to disembogue itself into the Atlantic Occan-an idea which leads to the supposition that he confounded the Nile with the Niger. He admitted that the Caspian Sea was a great inland lake, having no communication with any other sea.

The conquests of Alexander the Great led to the most distinct and extended notions of the ancient world. The most remarkable geographical fact of his reign was the exploration of the Indus. A fleet of 800 vessels, under the command of Nearchus,

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descended this river, and went along the coast of Asia to the bottom of the Persian Gulf. The expedition of Alexander opened the eyes of the Greeks, but produced at that time no results of any consequence to the science of geography. What was gained by his exploratory voyage was lost by the dismemberment of his empire; and the historians of the period relapsed into their former ignorance.

By degrees, however, geography assumed the dignity of a science. Eratosthenes, who flourished about 250 B.C., composed a treatise on the subject. He was a native of Cyrene in Africa, and the keeper of the Alexandrian Library. By means of instruments erected in the museum of the city of Alexandria, he found the obliquity of the ecliptic, to within half a degree of the truth. He was the first who attempted to determine the circumference of the earth by the actual measurement of an arc of one of its great circles. By means of sun-dials he found that Syene, near a cataract of the Nile, which was situated, as he thought, on the same meridian as Alexandria, was immediately under the tropic of Cancer, so that at the time of the summer solstice the sun was vertical to the inhabitants of Syene, and the gnomon had no shadow at noon. Thus, having measured the angle of the shadow of the gnomon at Alexandria, also at the time of the summer solstice, he found the distance of the sun from the zenith at noon to be 7° 12', or one-fiftieth part of the circumference of a great circle, viz., 360°. He then computed the distance between the two places, Alexandria and Syene, and found it 5,000 stadia. Accordingly, he multiplied this number by 50, and found the measure of the earth's circumference to be 250,000 stadia. Making allowance for the errors which he committed, for want of the delicate instruments of observation which we possess in modern times, this was a tolerable approximation to the truth. Syene, indeed, was not on the same meridian as Alexandria, but on one nearly 3° east of the meridian of that city; and instead of being exactly on the tropic, it was about half a degree north of that line. Eratosthenes affirmed the spherical figure of the earth, and asserted that the immensity of the ocean would not prevent vessels from going to India by continually shaping their course westward

Hipparchus, who flourished about ninety years late Eratosthenes, laid the foundation of astronomical ge

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