By ordinary grammarians what we have termed the subject is called the nominative case. The employment of such a term is objectionable, for it is incorrect by not being sufficiently comprehensive. Take, for instance, the proposition, To ride is healthful. To ride is the subject of the proposition, and the subject, therefore, to the verb is. But is to ride a nominative case? Ask the grammarians, and they will tell you that it is the infinitive mood of the verb ride. If an infinitive mood, it is not a nominative case. Cases pertain to nouns, moods to verbs. But here we meet with an instance of the complexity and obscurity that have been brought into English grammar by attachment to Latin forms. Our nouns in their actual condition have but one case, the genitive; or, if the nominative be allowed to be a case, then two cases are the utmost that our nouns can be said to have. Why should more be assigned to them? It may be doubted, indeed, whether what is called the nominative can be properly termed a case, for it differs from the Latin nominative, which is formed from a stem common to all the cases through which the noun passes; whereas in English the nominative is the stem itself. However this may be in English, nouns now possess no more than two cases. This fact is in no way affected by the allegation that the Anglo-Saxon, the mother of the English, has several cases. It is with the daughter, not with the mother, that we are here concerned. COPY-SLIP NO. 5.—the letter 1. it COPY-SLIP NO. 6.-COMBINATION OF THE LETTERS u, i. COPY-SLIP NO. 7.—COMBINATION OF THE LETTERS i, t. LESSONS IN PENMANSHIP.-III. We now place before our readers the letter 1, the last of the four letters that are formed either by the simple bottom-turn itself, or by some slight modification of it. Proceeding by a regular system of gradation, the self-teacher has been led first to make the bottom-turn within the horizontal lines that contain, as we stated in our last lesson, what may be termed the body of any letter that has a head, loop, or tail extending above or below these lines; and then, after making the simple bottomturn, he was shown how to turn this stroke into the letter i by placing a dot above it, to form the letter u by the combination of two bottom turns, and to make the letter t by beginning the thick down-stroke a little above the upper horizontal line, and crossing it just above the same line by a fine hair-stroke. He must now proceed to make the letter 1, beginning the downstroke at the line e e, which is placed at a distance above the line a a nearly equal to the distance between the lines a a, b b. The chief difficulty that the learner has to encounter in making the letter 1 arises from the length of the down-stroke, which obliges him to bring his pen downwards in the same straight line for a distance nearly half as long again as the letter t. At first his hand will shake, and, as it is manifestly much easier to make a short stroke than a long one, his early attempts at aking the letter 1 will not be quite so straight and even, ps, as his copies of the shorter letters arising out of the turn. His success, however, greater or less, as it may be, in making this letter will afford an excellent test of his progress, and show him whether or not he be holding his pen in the proper way and sitting in the proper position. If he find no difficulty in repeating the letter 1 several times, and can do it with ease, making a straight and well-formed stroke with an equal pressure of the pen from top to bottom until it begins to narrow, he may be sure that his position is correct, and that he is holding his pen properly; but if, on the other hand, he find, after a few trials, that the down-strokes of his letters are uneven and crooked, owing to the shaking of his hand, and he feel pain in the ball of the thumb and the thick muscles on the opposite side of the palm of the hand, he may be sure that his position and the way in which he holds his pen is stiff, constrained, and unnatural, and requires amendment. To effect this, he must once more turn to the directions given for holding the pen, etc., in our first. lesson in Penmanship, and carefully regulating the position of his hand and body by these instructions, he will soon discover the points in which he is at fault, and gradually acquire greater ease and freedom in writing. After accomplishing the letter 1, the learner may proceed to combinations of the letters that he has already made singly, and for this purpose we have furnished him with copy-slips, showing combinations of the letters u, i and i, t. Let him copy these and all the examples that we shall give him in future lessons again and again, remembering that in no branch of learning is constant practice more necessary, especially to the self-teacher, than in Penmanship. EXERCISE 3. Aufgabe 3. Aachen, Berlin, Göln, Dresden, Ems, Frankfurt, Gotha, Ham, burg, Innipru, Jena, Königsberg, Leipzig, Mainz, Nürnberg, Vesth, Quebec, Rastatt, Trier, Ulm, Vaduz, Wien, Kanton, Opern, Zürich Grau, theurer Freund, ist alle Doch grün des Lebens goltner A B L I ве X J K L M N O P Q R P Z m n U V W X Y Z St 24 a b c d e f st Exercise 3. Aufgabe 3. Aachen Berlin, Lölu, Drekden- Grau, theurer Freund ist alle Theorie- SECTION IV.-THE ARTICLE AND THE VERB. : another thus, in French, apple (la pomme) is feminine, while grape (le raisin) is masculine. In German the word head (ter In German the definite Article has, in the Nominative singular, Rerf) is masculine; in French (la tête) it is feminine; and in Der Brauer hat Wein, Sie haben Kaffee, und ich habe Wasser. Das Pferd hat Heu, das Kint hat lint, and. The brewer has wine, you have coffee, and I have water. Mehl, oder das Brod? 14. Er hat das Mehl. 15. Hat der Bäcker den Wein, oder das Wasser? 16. Er hat das Wasser. 17. Lieben Sie den Bauer? 18. Nein, ich liebe den Lehrer. 19. Haben Sie Fleisch, oter Wein? 20. Ich habe das Fleisch. 21. Haben Sie das Brot, oder den Zucker? 22. Ich habe das Brod. 23. Hat der Vater tas Buch, oder den Kamm? 24. Er hat das Buch. LESSONS IN LATIN.-II. SECTION II.-PRELIMINARY INSTRUCTIONS IN THE VERBS. The horse has hay, the child has IN regard to the exercises which I am about to give, you should bread, and the girl has tea. Brod, und das Märchen hat Thee. 1. Wer hat Bros? 2. Der Bäcker hat Vrob. 3. Hat der Väder Mehl? 4. Ja, er hat auch Mehl. 5. Was hat der Müller? 6. Der Müller hat Mehl und Korn. 7. Wer hat Fleisch? 8. Der Fleischer bat Fleisch. 9. Haben Sie Bier? 10. Nein, der Brauer hat Bier. 11. Haben Sie Wein? 12. Nein, ich habe Kaffee. 13. Was hat das Mat, chen? 14. Das Märchen hat Thee. 15. Hat der Brauer Korn? 16. Nein, er hat nur Bier und Wein. 17. Was hat das Kind? 18. Gs hat Wasser. 19. Hat es auch Brod? 20. Ja, es hat Brod und auch Fleisch. All German verbs are conjugated interrogatively, in the present and imperfect tenses, like have and be in English; that is, by placing the verb before its subject, without an auxiliary: : first learn the vocabulary by heart. If yours is a mechanical trade, you may repeat the words over again and again while engaged in labour. Or you may make the words your own while walking to and from your employment. Among my personal friends is a gentleman who acquired the greater part of the words of the French language, while rising and dressing in the morning. Thousands of words have I myself learnt while walking for recreation. Having thoroughly mastered the vocabulary, take a slate and write down the Latin into English; then write the English into Latin. Look over what you have done carefully. Correct If you look into the exercises you every mistake and error. will find that the English will assist you in writing the Latin, and the Latin will assist you in writing the English. When you have got both the Latin and the English into as correct a state as you can, copy them neatly into a note-book. Having with the rule or the direction, and also the example. Leave done so, read them carefully over, and compare each instance nothing until you understand the reason. All the examples or illustrations that give, as well as the chief rules, should be committed to memory. Before you proceed to a second lesson, It would be useful to write out the rules in one consecutive view, in order that, having them all at once under your eye, you may study them in their connection and as a whole, so as to see their bearing one upon another, and the general results to which they lead. Such a practice would have a very beneficial effect on your mind, by habituating it to arrangement and order, and might be expected to afford you valuable aid, both in other studies and in your business pursuits. Carefully avoid haste and slovenliness. Do your best in all that you undertake. "Well," not "much," should be your watchword. Repeated reviews of the ground passed over are very desirable. Every Saturday you should go carefully over what you have done during the week. At the end of every month the work of the month should be reviewed. On arriving at a natural division of our subject-as for instance, when we have treated of the nouns-you should go over, and put together in your mind the substance of what has been said thereon. "Let us not be weary in well doing: for in due season we shall reap, if we fuint not.' (Gal. vi. 9.) ascertain that you are master of the first. VOCABULARY. Curro, I run. The chief parts are curro, I run; currere, to run; cucurri, I have run; cursus, run. The English representative, or the element in English derived from the parts, is curr; also curs or cours. Con, from cum, means with; dis signifies in different directions; ex signifies out of. EXERCISE 1.-LATIN-ENGLISH. Curro and its parts give rise to several English words, as current ("the current coin of the realm"); currency ("the circulating medium"). Another example is found in the phrase "account current." EXERCISE 2.-ENGLISH-LATIN. Find English words derived from some part of curro; find English words derived from curro, with in prefixed; also with con prefixed; also with dis prefixed; also with er prefixed. Remark. In order to make my meaning quite clear, I will myself do this exercise in part. From cursus comes the English word course; from in and curs comes incursion; from ex and curs comes excursion. If the reader is acquainted with, or is learning French, he will do well, as he passes on, to find out French words corresponding to, and derived from, Latin words; as in courir, French to run; cours, a course. By comparison he may occasionally find that the same sound or word has a different meaning in French from what it has in Latin or in English. Thus, concursus in Latin means a coming together, as to a meeting, a concourse of people; but the corresponding French, concours, signifies co-operation. So concurrence in Eng-gations are determined or characterised by the vowel which lish is agreement, but in French competition. By practising precedes the termination re in the infinitive mood; thus:comparisons such as this, you will not only meet with many curious facts, but be assisted to understand the nature of language itself, as well as receive good mental discipline. If it seems strange to you that the same letters curr or curs should The first conjugation ends in are, as amare, to love. ere, as docere, to teach. ere, as regere, to rule. ire, as audire, to hear. bear dissimilar meanings, a little reflection on the matter will We say then that the first conjugation is known by having a soon take away your surprise. Let us go at once to the pri-long before re of the infinitive; the second by having long; mary meaning of curr. Its primary meaning is to run. Now, men may run into, or run out of, or run together, or run about, the third by having è short; the fourth by having i long. The same fact may be put before you in a different way; thus, ā for different purposes. For instance, they may run together in harmony, and then they concur; or they may run together in long is characteristic of the first conjugation; è long, of the rivalry, and then they are in what the French call concurrence, it may be remarked, that in the first conjugation a long preě short, of the third; i long, of the fourth. In general vails; in the second, è long prevails; in the third, è short prevails; and in the fourth, i long prevails. that is, competition. I have thus, my fellow-student, opened out before you an immense field. It is only a hint or two that I can give; but if you follow these intimations, you will in time become not only a Latin scholar, but a good linguist. In the former part of this lesson I had to employ the word curro, and in so doing I used particularly the form curr. This form is called the stem of the word. The stem of a word is that which contains its essential letters, or the letters which are necessary to make it what it is. Thus, curr is found in every form into which the verb curro passes. Observe that the second ris added merely to strengthen the word, or give force in pronunciation. You find this stem, cur or curs, for instance, in the English words current, incur, concourse, concurrence, discourse. Observe again, that many of our Latin words have come to us through the French. They have, therefore, entered the English in the form which they had received in the French. This is exemplified in concourse and discourse, where an o has been introduced by the French pronunciation, as these words come to us immediately from the French words concours and discours. The stem of a word is found generally by cutting off the final vowel or syllable. In curro you obtain the stem curr by taking away the o. The o in reality is the sign of the first person singular, or I. The word for I is not prefixed in Latin, except when it is required for emphasis, because the terminations of the verb show clearly what person is meant that is, whether it is the first person, I, or the second person, thou, or the third person, he. In the English there is a necessity for the constant use of the personal pronoun, because the endings of the verb are not so different from each other as in the Latin. Thus, in English, we say, I run, thou runnest, he runs, we run, you run, they run. Here, out of six persons, the verb has the same termination for four-namely, I run, we run, you run, they run. But for the pronouns I, we, you, they, the reader or listener would not be aware from the use of the verb which person was intended. In the Latin, however, the verb has a peculiar ending for every person. After this explanation, we will call these terminations person-endings. These personendings vary with the tense and the voice; that is, they are different in the past tense from what they are in the present tense; and they are different in the passive voice from what they are in the active voice. At present we will confine our selves to the present tense and the active voice. In curro, the person-endings of the present tense, indicative mood, active voice, are as follow: 1st person PERSON-ENDINGS. Singular. -is, thou -it, he second; conjugation. The person-endings in it will not therefore be the Now, curro, of which I have spoken before, is of the third same as they are in the verb amo, I love. The person-endings in amo are o, as, at; amus, atis, ant. In the tables or paradigms (patterns), which I am about to give, the person-endings are printed in italics, as amo, amas, amat; you will therefore easily recognise them, and ought in all cases to repeat them until you have imprinted them on your memory. -áris, thou -ámini, ye -átur, he -ántur, they PRESENT PASSIVE INDICATIVE. Singular. Singular. 1st per. Amó, I love 1st per. Amór, I am loved 2nd Amás, thou lovest 2nd Amáris, thou art loved 3rd Amát, he loves 3rd Amátur, he is loved Plural. Plural. 1st per. Amámus, we love 1st per. Amámur, we are loved 2nd Amátis, you love 2nd Amámini, you are loved 3rd Amánt, they love 3rd Amántur, they are loved. Observe, then, that in order to form any person, you must first get the stem, by cutting off the last syllable. Then to the stem thus obtained, add the proper person-ending. Suppose you have to deal with the verb laudo, I praise; and suppose you want to express in Latin the English they praise; the way to proceed is-throw away the o in laudo; by so doing, you get laud; now, they praise is in the third person plural; the personending of the third person plural is ant, as shown above; subjoin ant to laud, and you have laudant, which means they praise. Or if you have to put laudas into English, by looking at the table you find that its termination-namely, as-is the personending of the second person singular, and consequently laudes means thou praisest. I have entered into this full and minute explanation once for all. If you take pains to make yourseli master of. it, you will not require its repetition. But take care not merely to consult the tables I give; you must commit them to memory, and never pass on until you have made them in each case your own. Having learnt the form or example, learn the vocabulary, and then put the Latin exercise into English, and the English exercise into Latin. Do this also from memory; but after you have done it, compare your translation with the table or example, and correct it accordingly. Discover and write down the English representatives of the Adding the person-endings to the stem, we have the following Latin words here used; that is to say, the English words example: EXERCISE 4.-ENGLISH-LATIN. We under Egypt-under evidently signifying farther to the south than the latter country. The ancients generally believed that Africa and Asia, or rather Ethiopia and India, were united by land still farther to the south, and they consequently considered the Ethiopians and Indians as near neighbours. This is the ground on which both Virgil and Lucan have supposed the Nile to take its rise on the frontiers of India. I praise. Thou praisest. He praises. We praise. You praise. They praise. I am praised. Thou art praised. He is praised. are praised. You are praised. They are praised. They delight. Thou adornest. You are grieved. They are educated. He dances. You are blamed. We try. You are tried. He is wounded. I am educated. Now, before you go forward in this exercise, and in every other, ask yourself, and ascertain that you give the right answers to the following or similar questions, namely: Of what conjugation is the verb amo? of what tense is amo? of what person is amo? of what number is amo? of what mood is amo? of what voice is amo? Do the same with all the rest. LESSONS IN GEOGRAPHY.-II. NOTIONS OF THE POETS. At the Homeric epoch the Greeks generally considered that the earth existed in the form of a disc. This disc was supposed to be centrally divided by the Euxine or Black Sea, the Egean Sea, and the Mediterranean Sea into two parts, the one north and the Anaximander under the names of Europe and Asia, names which other south; these parts were at a later period designated by had been previously understood in a more restricted sense. The river Phasis in Colchis, or Pontus, on the east, and the Pillars of Hercules, or Strait of Gibraltar, on the west, were supposed to mark the limits of the world. The country of the Cimmerians, who were afterwards confounded with the Cimbri; and of the Macrobians, so called because they were supposed to be longerlived than other mortals; Elysium, a happy country which had Isles, which at a later period, under the names of Atlantis and no existence but in the fantasies of the mind; the Fortunate Meropis, were the object of the philosophic fictions of Plato and Theopompus; the country of the Arimaspi, who saw so clearly because they had only one eye; of the Gryphons, who guarded the precious metals of the Riphean mountains; Colchis, the country of magic, peopled with monsters and prodigies;-all these and many other ingenious fables, the offspring of the imaginations of the poets Homer and Hesiod, or rather of the people among whom they lived, were mixed up with notions purely geographical, and constituted the world at that period a scene of marvels, a receptacle of agreeable delusions on the one HOMER, who wrote his poems in the tenth century before the During the historic ages of Greece cosmological systems were multiplied to an endless extent. Thales said that the earth was a sphere; his disciple Anaximander taught that it was a cylinder. Leucippus said that it was a drum, and Heraclides that it was a boat. Many and curious were the notions the ancient philosophers held concerning the globe until voyages of discovery were begun. Herodotus made a great step in the descriptive geography of certain regions, especially in the east of Europe. Yet, notwithstanding his voyages into the three parts of the old world, he fills his narrative with childish tales and dreamy details. He only knew the names of Arabia, Iberia (or Spain), Gallia (or France), the islands of Albion (Great Britain), and the Cassiterides (or Scilly Isles). He had correct notions on Africa, and particularly on Egypt, but the western part of this continent was unknown to him beyond Tripoli. His details on India, besides their uncertainty, are intermingled with fables taken from the legends or popular creeds of the extreme East. Among the tales more or less ingenious, we must not forget the ants that were as large as foxes, and that collected heaps of gold mixed with sand! THE WORLD ACCORDING TO THE GREEKS AT THE HOMERIC EPOCH. Previous to the Homeric epoch, the Greeks believed in the existence of nations who inhabited the countries situated behind the regions where the sun appeared to them to rise and to set. They imagined that these nations lived in perpetual darkness, and they called them Cimmerias, a word evidently derived from the Hebrew Cimers (pronounced Kiserici), and signifying darkness. In proportion as they became acquainted with more regions that were enlightened by the sun (that is, as the limits of the known world were extended by voyage and discovery), they transported the Cimmerians and their dark abodes to a greater distance. In those early times the Cimmerians were supposed to inhabut the borders of the Black Sea, near the Thracian Bosphorus, Italy, and the distant countries on the east, and west, where the world was supposed to terminate. The people who were supposed to live the farthest north were called Hyperboreans, because they were placed bed Bevas, or in the ert me mth: and those who lived the farthest south were called Flugins-terally, st-because they were situated more directly under the sun's rays; their country lay south of Egypt, and was afterwards called Etiwgua sub Fry, to, or Ethiopia Herodotus appears to have been unacquainted with western Europe. He does not speak of Massilia (Marseilles), a city founded by the Phocæans about 600 B.C. more than a century before he was born. Rome, which had been increasing in grandeur for about three hundred years before his time, is not even mentioned by name. Of Italy he only knew the south of that part anciently called Magna Græcis. The extreme west of Africa was equally unknown to the Greeks, yet the Phoenicians had made discoveries in the Atlantic Ocean, and the periplus (smlig red or ecasting voyage of Hanno was executed considerably before Herodotus. The African voyage of the Cartha |