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bread that will rid me of this trouble ?" To Canterbury with their followers went four knights of Henry's court, and, acting entirely on their own responsibility, slew the archbishop on the steps of the altar.

The outcry raised in England, where the archbishop was looked upon with favour, not only on account of his bold conduct in standing up for his order, but also because he was supposed to be the champion of the Anglo-Saxon against the Norman Englishman, was loud and sincere. Abroad, the feeling of grief was more than equalled by anger, and a sort of holy horror was felt at the bare notion of slaying an archbishop. King Henry, there is every reason to think, was genuinely sorry for the violence that had been done. Though his "guide and his companion, and his own familiar friend" had proved to be the sharpest thorn in his side, he remembered too well the former days to wish him any personal harm. Notwithstanding, on him was charged the whole guilt of the murder, Penance the most severe, disclaimers the most solemn, and ceremonies the most humiliating scarcely served to clear him. Purposely the Papal Court, which saw in Henry the strongest opponent of its pretensions, availed itself of the handle given to it, and strove to crush the king under a load of obloquy. To a very great extent it succeeded. Never again did Henry appear as the same strong champion of State rights as when he forced an assent to the Constitutions of Clarendon. The ghost of Thomas à Becket, now St. Thomas of Canterbury, haunted him, and the dead man's hand deprived the conqueror of his victory.

The Constitutions of Clarendon were disregarded, the death of Becket making it impossible for the king to fly in the face of the papal veto upon them. Some little submission of the clerical to the kingly power was made, but the work marked out by Henry II., the entire subjection of the clergy to the head of the state, was left unaccomplished till the dawn of the Reformation in England, when it was renewed and carried out in the fullest possible manner by that "stately lord who broke the bonds of Rome," and who was saved by natural causes from committing, in the case of Cardinal Wolsey, the egregious blunder committed by the knights of Henry II. when they plunged their swords into the bosom of Thomas à Becket at Canterbury.

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3. You must stop only as long as you can count one, two, three, four.

4. You must pronounce the word which is immediately before a period, with the falling inflection of the voice.

5. The falling inflection (or bending) of the voice is commonly marked by the grave accent, thus, `. Examples.

Charles has bought a new hat.

I have lost my gloves.

Exercise and temperance strengthen the constitution.
A wise son makes a glad father.

The fear of the Lord is the beginning of wisdom.
II. THE NOTE OF INTERROGATION.

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6. The note or mark of Interrogation is a round dot with a hook above it, which is always put at the end of a question. 7. In reading, when you come to a note of interrogation, you must stop as if you waited for an answer.

8. You must stop only as long as you do at the period. 9. You must in most cases pronounce the word which is placed immediately before a note of interrogation, with the rising inflection of the voice.

10. The rising inflection of the voice is commonly marked by the acute accent, thus, ́.

Examples.

Has Charles bought a new hát?
Have you lost your gloves?
Hast thou an arm like God?

Canst thou thunder with a voice like him?

If his son ask bread, will he give him a stone?
If he ask a fish, will he give him a serpent?

11. In general, read declaratory sentences or statements with the falling inflection, and interrogative sentences or questions with the rising inflection of the voice.

Examples.
Interrogative. Has John arrived?
Declaratory. John has arrived.
Interrogative. Is your father well?
Declaratory. My father is well.

Interrogative. Hast thou appealed unto Caesar?
Declaratery. Unto Casar shalt thon gò.

12. Sometimes the sentence which ends with a note of interrogation should be read with the falling inflection of the voice. Examples.

What o'clock is it?

How do you do to-dày?

How much did he give for his book? Where is Abel thy brother?

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How long, ye simple ones, will ye love simplicity ?

Norway, Kings of.

Sigurd III.

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Magnus V. Sverre.

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Scotland, Kings of. Malcolm IV.. 1153 William . 1165

Portugal, Kings of.

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Anastatius IV..

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France, Kings of.

Philip II..
Germany, Emperor of.
Frederick Bar-

Gregory VII. 1187

Sweden, Kings of.

READING AND ELOCUTION.—II.

PUNCTUATION (continued).

I. THE PERIOD.

1. THE Period is a round dot or mark which is always put at the end of a sentence.

2. In reading, when you come to a period, you must stop as if you had nothing more to read.

Where wast thou, when I laid the foundations of the earth? Sometimes the first part of an interrogative sentence should be read with the rising inflection of the voice, and the last part with the falling inflection. These parts are generally separated by a Comma, thus,,

14. At the comma, the rising inflection is used, and at the note of interrogation the falling inflection.

Examples.

Shall I give you a péach, or an apple ?

Are you going home, or to school?

Last Sabbath, did you go to church, or did you stay at home? Whether is it easier to say, Thy sins are forgiven, or to say, Arise and walk ?

Why did the heathen ráge, and the people imagine vain things?

Is your father well, the old man of whom ye spȧke?

15. Sometimes the first part of an interrogative sentence must be read with the falling inflection of the voice, and the last part with the rising inflection.

Examples.

Where have you been to-dày? At home?

Who told you to return? Your father?

What is that on the top of the house? A bird?

What did you pay for that book ? Three shillings?

Is not the life more than meat? and the body than raíment ?

What went ye out to see? A man clothed in soft raiment ?

What went ye out to see? A prophet?

How often shall my brother sin against me and I forgive him? Until seven times ?

16. In the following exercises some of the sentences are in this room? How negligent some of our fellow-pupils are! Ah! questions requiring the rising, and some the failing mfection. I am afraid many will regret that they have not improved their time!

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Way, here comes Charies. Ind you think that be would return s soca? I suspect that be has not been passed with his visit. Have you, Charles ? And were your friends glad to see you? When 38 COGS.2 Jade to be married? W she make us a visit before she is Or will she was until she has changed her name?

My Dear Elward, how happy I am to see you! I heard of your approaching happiness will the highest pessura How does Rose

And how is our whimsal aid friend the Baron? You must be patient and uusver al my questions. I have many inquiries to

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The first dawn of morning found Waverley on the esplanade in front of the CO2 Gothst gate of the castle. But be paced it long before the invinige was lowered. He produced his order to the sergeant of the guard, and was Limited. The place of his friens confinement was a gloomy apartment in the central part of the castle.

Do you expect to be as hirt in your ches as your brother? Did For recule your lessons as well as be 50X Na Lazy boy! Carejess chod You have been paying these two hours. You have paid Do attention to your lessons. You cannot say a word of them. How foolish you have been. What a waste of time and talents you have

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9. As mane is the inclination of two straight Enes to each other, which meet in a point, and are not in the same direction. The point in which they meet as maled the net of the angle, and each of the two straight lines is called a swie or leg of the angle. The angle ised is generally caled a pizia rectilineal magle, because it necessary bes in a puam, and is formed of sight lanes. Curr sanol in pics are such as are formed on the slice of a sphere or globe: bat the constberation of such angles belongs to the higher geometry. The magnitudes of angies do not depend on the lemetas of their legs or sides, but on the degree or amount of aperture between them, taken at the same distance from the verIEI.

Az angie is gemely represented by three letters, one of which as trenys pusová at the weten, we distinguish in particularly from every other angle in a gun fem, and the other two are planed somewhere in the legs of the angie, but generally at ther extremities and a ring or in speaking of the angle, the jetter at the vertex 28 Always pinned between the other two, and ammered or wraan soooringg Thus, in Fig. 4, which TEECOSUITS AZ are the mume of the sure is etter B A C or the point & is moed te vertex, and the straight lines SACLs sides or be 11. Angles are Imbed late twe kukk, výht and oblique, and sõli (de angles are Emand as tWe specDER, BOKO ani dënuar,

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obtuse; and the angle D A B, which is less than a right angle, is called acute.

11. A plane figure, in geometry, is a portion of a plane surface, inclosed by one or more lines or boundaries. The sum of all the boundaries is called the perimeter of the figure, and the portion of surface contained within the perimeter is called its area. 12. A circle is a plane figure contained or bounded by a curved line, called the circumference or periphery, which is such that all straight lines drawn from a certain point within the figure to the circumference are equal to each other. This point

B

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æquus, equal, and latus, a side); isosceles (Greek, isos, equal, and skelos, a leg); and scalene (Greek, skalēnos, unequal), right-angled, obtuse-angled, and acute-angled.

19. An equilateral (equal-sided) triangle is that which has three equal sides (Fig. 8).

20. An isosceles (equal-legged) triangle is that which has only two equal sides (Fig. 9).

21. A scalene (unequal) triangle is that which has all its sides unequal (Fig. 10).

22. A right-angled triangle is that which has one of its angles a right angle (Fig. 11), in which the angle at A is the right

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is called the centre of the circle, and each of the straight lines is called a radius of the circle. The straight line drawn through the centre and terminated at both ends in the circumference, is called the diameter of the circle.

It is plain, from the definition, that all the radii must be equal to each other, that all the diameters must be equal to each other, and that the diameter is always double the radius. In speaking or writing, the circle is usually denoted by three letters, placed at any distance from each other, around the circumference; thus, in Fig. 7, the circle is denoted by the letters A C B, or A E B ; or by any three of the other letters on the circumference. The point o is the centre; each of the straight lines o A, O B, O C, O E, is a radius, and the straight

line A B is a diameter.

13. An are of a circle is any part of its circumference; the chord of an arc is the straight line which joins its extremities.

B

C Fig. 14. Fig. 15. Fig. 16. angle. The side opposite to the right angle is called the hypotenuse (the subtense, or line stretched under the right angle), and the other two sides are called the base and the perpendicular; the two latter being interchangeable according to the position of the triangle.

23. An obtuse-angled triangle is that which has one of its angles an obtuse angle (Fig. 10).

24. An acute-angled triangle is that which has all its angles acute; Figs. 8 and 9 are examples as to the angles, but there is no restriction as to the sides.

In any triangle, a straight line drawn from the vertex of one of its angles perpendicular to the opposite side, or to that side produced (that is, extended beyond either of its extremities in a continued straight line), is called the perpendicular of the triangle; as in Fig. 12, where the dotted line A D is the perpendicular of the triangle A B C; and in Fig. 13, where the dotted line G H drawn from the point a to the dotted part of the base produced is the perpendicular of the triangle E F G. 25. A quadrilateral figure, or quadrangle, is a plane rectilineal

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14. A segment of a circle is the surface inclosed by an arc and its chord.

15. A sector of a circle is the surface inclosed by an arc, and the two radii drawn from its extremities.

Thus, in Fig. 7, the portion of the circumference A M C, ⚫ whose extremities are A and c, is an arc; and the remaining portion A B C, having the same extremities, is also an arc; the straight line A c is the chord of either of these arcs. The surface included between the arc A M C and its chord A C, is the segment A M C; there is also the segment A B C. The surface included between the radii o C, O B, and the arc C B, is called the sector CO B; the remaining portion of the circle is also a

sector.

16. A semicircle is the segment whose chord is a diameter. Thus, in Fig. 7, A C B or A E B is a semicircle. The term semicircle, which literally means half a circle, is restricted in

Fig. 17. Fig. 18. Fig. 19. figure contained by four straight lines, called its sides. The straight line which joins the vertices of any two of its opposite angles, is called its diagonal. Quadrangles are divided into various kinds, according to the relation of their sides and angles; as parallelograms, including the rectangle, the square, the rhombus, and the rhomboid; and trapeziums, including the trapezoid.

26. A parallelogram is a plane quadrilateral figure, whose opposite sides are parallel; thus, Fig. 14, A C B D, is a parallelogram, and A B, C D, are its diagonals.

27. A rectangle is a parallelogram, whose angles are right angles (Fig. 15). 28. A square is a rectangle, whose sides are all equal

(Fig. 16).

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Fig. 13.

Fig. 12, geometry to the segment thus described; but there are many other ways of obtaining half a circle.

17. Plane rectilineal figures are described under various heads; as trilateral or triangular; quadrilateral or quadrangular; and multilateral or polygonal.

18. A triangle (Figs. 8, 9, 10, and 11) is a plane rectilineal figure contained by three straight lines, which are called its sides. No figure can be formed of two straight lines; hence, an angle is not a figure, its legs being unlimited as to length. Triangles are divided into various kinds, according to the relation of their sides or of their angles: as equilateral (Latin,

Fig. 20.

Fig. 21.

Fig. 22. 29. A rhomboid is a parallelogram, whose angles are oblique. The opposite angles of a rhomboid are equal to one another (Fig. 14).

30. A rhombus, or lozenge, is a rhomboid, whose sides are all equal (Fig. 17).

31. A trapezium is a plane quadrilateral figure, whose opposite sides are not parallel (Fig. 18).

32. A trapezoid is a plane quadrilateral figure, which has two of its sides parallel (Fig. 19).

33. A multilateral figure, or polygon, is a plane rectilineal figure, of any number of sides. The term is generally appli to any figure whose sides exceed four in number. Polygon

divided into regular and irregular; the former having all their sides and angles equal to each other; and the latter having any variation whatever in these respects. The sum of all the sides of a polygon is called its perimeter, and when viewed in position its contour. Irregular polygons are also divided into conter and non-convex; or, those whose angles are all salient, and those of which one or more are re-entrant. The irregular polygon (Fig. 20) has its angles at B, C, and D, salient; and its angles at A and E, re-entrant.

34. Polygons are also divided into classes, according to the number of their sides; as, the pentagon (Fig. 21), having five sides; the hexagon (Fig. 22), having six sides; the heptagon having seven sides; the octagon having eight sides: and so on. According to this nomenclature, the triangle is called a t-yon, and the quadrangle a tetragon.

LESSONS IN ARITHMETIC.—IV.

MULTIPLICATION.

line and 6 in the left-hand line stand in lines which meet in a square containing 24, which is therefore the product of 4 multipoed by 6.

It may be observed that 6 in the top line and 4 in the lefthalse line stand in lines which meet in a square also containing 24. The reason of this is that when the product of two numbers is required, it is indifferent which we consider to be the multip Her and which the multiplicand. Thus, 4 added to itself 6 times, is the same as 6 added to itself 4 times. The truth of this may be seen, perhaps, more clearly as follows:If we make four vertical rows containing six dots each, as represented in the figure, it is quite evident that the whole number of dots is equal either to the number of dots in a vertical row (6) repeated 4 times, or to the number of dots in an horizontal row (4) repeated six times. And the same is clearly true of any other two numbers.

Hence we talk of two numbers being multiplied together, it being indifferent which we consider to be the multipher and which the multiplicand.

4. If several numbers be multiplied together, the result is called the costinel product of the nalers. Thus, 30 is the continued product of 2, 3, and 5. because 2 x 3 x 5 = 30. N.B. On learning the multiplication table, let the following facts be noticed:

1. THE repeated addition of a number or quantity to itself is
called multiplication. Thus, the result of the number 5, for
instance, added to itself 6 times, is said to be 5 Latigue lly 6.
5 +5 +5 +5 + 5 + 5 = 30, or 5 multiplied by 6 is 30.
When the numbers to be multiplied are large, it is evident that
the process of addition would be very laborions. The processing a cipher to the number.
of multiplication which we are going to explain is then fore, in
reality, a short way of performing a series of allitione Let it
then, be borne in mind, that multiplication is, in fact, czy

addition.

2. Definitions.-The number to be repeated or male di called the multiplicond. The number by which we multiply is called the multiplier: it, in fact, indicates how many tree the multiplicand is to be repeated, or ailed to itself. The number produced by the operation is called the product. The

and multiplicand are also called the fortyrs of which the product
is composed, because they sicke the product.
Thus, since 5 multiplied by 6 is 39, 5 and 6 are called

factors of the number 30.

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The product of any number multiplied by 10 is obtained by

The results of multiplying by 5 terminate alternately in 5 and 0. The first nine results of multiplying by 11 are found by merely repeating the figure to be multiplied. Thus, 11 times 7 are 77. In the first ten results of multiplying by 9 the right hand fare regularly decreases, and the left hand figure increases by ; also, the sum of the digits is 9. Thus, 9 times 2 are 18,

9 times 3 are 27.

5. It is evident that (as 2 x 3 x 5 = 30, and 2 × 3 = 6, and 6 x 5 = 30 in multiplying any number, 5, for instance, by another, 6, for instance, it will be the same thing if we multiply Thus, the product of any number multiplied by 28 might be got it successively by the factors of which the second is composed. by multiplying it first by 7, and then multiplying the result by 4.

The product of any number multiplied by 10 is obtained by annexing a cipher to the number. The product of any number, therefore, multiplied by 100 will be obtained by adding two ciphers, because 10 x 10 = 100; first multiplying by 10 adds one cipher, and then multiplying the result by 10 adds another cipher. Similarly a number is multiplied by any multiplier which consists of figures followed by any number of ciphers, by first multiplying by the number which is expressed by the figures Iwithout the ciphers, and then annexing the ciphers to the result. Thus, 5 times 45 being 225, we know that 500 times 45 is 22500. 6. The process of multiplication which we now proceed to explain, depends upon the self-evident fact that if the separate numbers of which a number is made up be multiplied by any factor, and the separate products added together, the result is the same as that obtained by multiplying the number itself by that factor. Thus

5 + 4 + 2 = 11

7 x 5 = 35, 7 x 4 = 2, 7 × 2 = 14.

33 + 23 + 1 = 77 = 7 x 11.

7. We shall take two cases: first, that in which the multiplier consists only of one figure; and, secondly, when it is composed of any number of figures.

Case 1.—Required to multiply 2341 by 6.

2312 thousands + 3 hundreds + 4 tens + 1 unit. Multiplying these parts separately by 6, we get 6 units, 24 tens, 18 hundreds, and 12 thousands, which, written in figures and placed in lines for addition, are

6

200 1800

12000

Giving as the result 14046

The process may be effected more shortly, as follows, in one line; the reason for the method will be sufficiently apparent from the preceding explanation:

14046

Writing the numbers as in the margin, proceed thus: 6 imes 1 unit are 6 units; write the 6 units under the figure multiplied. 6 times 4 tens are 24 tens; set 2341 multiplicand the 4 or right-hand figure under the figure 6 multiplier multiplied, and carry the 2 or left-hand figure to the next product, as in addition. 6 times 3 hundreds are 18 hundreds, and 2 to carry make 20 hundreds; set the 0 under the figure multiplied, and carry the 2 to the next product, as above. 6 times 2 thousands are 12 thousands, and 2 to carry make 14 thousands. There being no more figures to be multiplied, set down the 14 in full, as in addition. The required product is 14046.

Before proceeding to the second case, the learner is requested to make himself familiar with the process of multiplying any number by one figure, by means of the following

EXERCISE 6.

(1.) Multiply 83 by 7; 549 by 5; 6879 by 9; 7891011 by 8; 567893459 by 3; 9057832917 by 11, and the result by 7.

(2.) Find the continued product of 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9. (3.) Find the products of the number 142857 by the nine digits. (4.) Find the products of the number 98998, the smallest number contained in the second square in Ex. 4, page 23, by the nine digits, and you will find these products in the same table.

(5.) Multiply 857142 by 9; 76876898 by 2; 1010400600 by 7; 79806090 by 8; and 999999999999 by 5.

(6.) Multiply the following numbers first by 2 and then by 3:

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(10.) I have a box divided into two parts; in each part there are three parcels; in each parcel there are four bags; in each bag there are five marbles. How many marbles are there in the box? (11.) There are six farmers, each of whom has a grazing farm of seven fields; each field has eight corners, and in each corner there are nine sheep. How many sheep do the farmers own, and how many are feeding on their farms ? Case 2. To multiply 675 by 337 :

Since 337 is 300+30 +7, if we multiply 675 by 7, by 30, and by 300 successively, we shall obtain the required product. Arrange the work as in operation (1):

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(1.) When the multiplier consists of one figure, write it down under the unit's place of the multiplicand. Begin at the right hand, and multiply each figure of the multiplicand by the multiplier, setting down the result and carrying as in addition.

(2.) When the multiplier consists of more than one figure, write down the multiplier under the multiplicand, units under units, tens under tens, etc. Multiply each figure of the multiplicaal by each figure of the multiplier separately, beginning with the units, and write the products so obtained in separate lines,

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(1.) Find the products of the following numbers :

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(2.) Multiply 2354 by 6789, and 23789 by 365, by reversing the multiplier.

(3.) Multiply 857142 by 19, by 23, by 48, by 97, by 103, by 987, and by 4567.

(4.) Find the products of the number 98998 by all the numbers from 11 to 49 inclusive. The answers will be found in the second square given in Ex. 4, page 23, on Addition.

LESSONS IN BOTANY.-II.

SECTION II.-ON THE SCIENTIFIC CLASSIFICATION OF
VEGETABLES.

THE observer who takes a survey of the various members of the vegetable world becomes cognisant of at least one prominent distinction between them. He soon perceives, that whilst certain vegetables have flowers others have not; or perhaps, more correctly speaking, if the second division really possess flowers, they are imperceptible.

This distinction was first laid hold of as a basis of classification by the celebrated Linnæus, and to this extent the classification adopted by that great philosopher was strictly natural; beyond this, however, it was altogether artificial, as we shall find hereafter.

Now, taking advantage of this distinction, the great Swedish naturalist termed the evident flowering vegetables phonogamous, from the Greek word fairóμai (phai'-no-mai), I appear; or, phanerogamous, from the Greek word pavepós (phan'-er-os), evident; and he designated the non-flowering, or more correctly speaking, the non-evident flowering plants, by the word cryptogamic, from the Greek word крUTтós (kroop'-tos), concealed. The further classification of Linnæus was artificial, as we have already stated. The nature of this classification we cannot study with advantage just yet. Hereafter we shall proceed to explain the principles on which it was based; but in the

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