n the lower surface of the frond upperevi be seen many rows of dark stripes. These a, and they contain the sporules of the plant, therefore may be got by opening the sporidia. en regarded by the naked eye, look almost like Lxamined under a microscope, however, their outline ⚫uy recognised. The difference between a sporidium rpordia) and a real seed may be thus explained. only one part (the embryo or germ) from which the nt can spring; whereas a sporule does not refuse to my side which may present itself to the necessary s of earth and moisture. Jugn the sporules are thus easily discoverable in the fern the botanical student must not expect to find them - readily in other members of the cryptogamic tribe, in us members of which not only does their position vary, - their presence is totally undiscoverable. ***ber of the vegetable world which bears a long to the phanerogamous of this rule, we restrict lants, to the seemingly ve, and a few others, ly so called, but are mod sporules or spores. 1, ato, so to speak, the plants. In the study bard, but useful terms; on onough, therefore lot va a chance, and fix them Although the latter may be what thou sporulos are like, which, by the way to loaf at the wing of thin for by SECTION III.-ON THE ORGANS OF VEGETABLES. Vegetable organs admit of the very natural division into those intended for nutriment and growth, and those intended for propagation. Hence we may speak of them as nutritive and reproductive organs. Nutritive organs consist of leaves, stems, branches, roots, and various appendages to all of these, hereafter to be described; whilst the reproductive organs of vegetables are flowers and their appendages. The Root.-We have already seen that it does not suffice to constitute a root that the portion of the vegetable treated of Thus, for example, as it was remarked in the be underground. preceding lesson, the potato is not a root, but a tuber; an onion is not a root, but a bulb. A root may be defined as a filamentous or thread-like (Latin Blum, a thread) offset from the descending axis of the plant, differing from the stem itself in certain relations of a botanical structure, and each filament ending in a soft absorbent tuft denominated the spongiole, the function of which consists in absorbing moisture, and conveying it into the structure of the plant. Hence the chief and primary use of the root is that of nutrition; but it also serves as a means of enabling the plant to take firm hold of the earth in which it grows. Representations of various roots are shown in Figs. 5, 6, 7, 8, and 9. In most cases, the part at which the stem ends and the root begins is well defined. It is denominated the collar. Although the general characteristic of the root is to seek the ground, as the characteristic of the stem is to seek the air, nevertheless stems frequently assume a tendency to become roots, and roots to become stems. A very remarkable example of the former tendency is furnished by the banyan tree, or ficus religiosa, a native of India. This tree has a natural tendency to shoot down prolongations from its stem, which, taking root, cover the ground with an arbourlike growth of most fantastic appearance. The opposite tendency is re-u cognisable in certain varieties of the elm, which shoot say, stole-bearing, which expression requires the previous explanation of the word stole. A stole, then, is a little stem which springs from the axilla (literally, arm-pit), or point at which the leaves spring from the stem. The strawberry (Fig. 4) affords a common and well-marked illustration of this kind of root. A bulb is an underground bud, from the upper part of which the stem arises, and from the lower part of which the root descends (Fig. 7). The onion furnishes us with a very familiar example. Tubers or tubercles are expansions of underground stems, usually containing much fecular or starchy matter, and studded with eyes or buds. The potato and the dahlia (Fig. 8) furnish us with very familiar examples of a tuber. The Stem may be either annual, biennial, or perennial. It is termed annual when it becomes developed. in the spring and dies before the winter, as, for instance, is the case with wheat; biennial, when it lives two years; of this kind is the carrot, which during the first year only produces leaves, and having lived two years flowers. and dies. Perennial stems are those which live many years, as is the case with trees in general. As regards their hardness, trunks or stems are usually divided into herbaceous (Latin, herba, grass), subligneous, and ligneous (Latin, lignum, wood). Herbaceous stems are those in which woody fibre is almost altogether absent, and which are therefore soft and juicy; of this kind is the stem of parsley, hemlock, etc. Subligneous stems are those in which woody fibre, although present, does not exist in the smaller shoots; of this kind are sage and rue, the bases of the stems of which are hard and woody, and therefore continue for many years, whereas the Shaking of the unaccented! any other people. The truth is That is, a combination of the letter m with the same sound tam in general, do not speak faster mentioned in the first example: or like the sound of mu in the 55 in conversation, and in familiar reading, first syllable of the English word mutter. and as often as they can do it, and thus scue than does a foreigner, who gives! to overy unaccented e he meets with. ce, ani the phrase je n'ai pas regu tout le i padunood by a foreigner and a Frenchman in-to-nan-ce—je në pa re-ņu tou le vê-te-mea; well be ad Frenchman will pronounce, cont-nans—iné 14, sounding in the first word two syllables ..the others would sound four; and in the sentence i syllables, where the others would sound ten.*** 4. uah custom of clipping or shortening worls as much id, in or linary reading and common conversation, is na tested in the following sentence, namely: That is, a combination of the letter, with the sound mentioned in the first example; or like the sound of nu in the English world wit. Pronounce nu in the word wu, and you have the correct pronunciation of the French word me Se like suh "Lind vous serez le m'me, vous me trouverez le m ́me." This mutence contains thirteen syllables in prose, namely:tom-se-rez-le-m/me-vous-me-trou-ve-rez-le-même. In postry, would have two syllables. However, in familiar reading iconversation, it is pronounced in eight syllables only, viz:$40 and con-spel-mêm-voum-trouv-rel-mém. The suppression of inicis precisely the reason why foreigners imagine that the Lionch speak so very quickly. 37. B, e, Mure OR UNACCENTED —Noma ek; gom like 1. Boon 1 of the letter in the English word a ip on, lise the und of the last syllable er in the words over and teater, when don quickly. 1 e mate or unaccented "is a mere emission of the voice without any distinct soun 1. It either sunneeds a constant the crticulation of which it becomes sensible, or comes after a Vowel, of winch it may be considered the prolongation" That is, like the sound of the last liable of the English word baker, pronounced rather carelessly. Take, if you please, another illustration, viz: the sound of sound of the French word ne. in the English word nut, as explained above, in illustrating the of mate or unaccented. This will give the correct sound The sound of e mute or unaccentel resembles the sound of the these two words, viz-the rim. Apply the sound of this e, thus letter e of the word the, which is heard in pronouncing quickly pronounced, to the e in the following words, viz. :—ce, de, je, me, se, se, te, que, etc. Or lastly, the sound of e mute or unaccented is based upon the sound of the English a pronounced naturally. Let the organs tion, whilst the lips are protruded as if to pout or whistle. Then, within the month maintain as nearly as possible the same posiwist the mouth is in this position, endeavour to pronounce the English a again; this, in a majority of cases, will give the this last-mentioned plan aloud, and the car will soon detect the correct sound of e mate or unaccented. Practise frequently on vousness or correctness of the sound. Most pupils find it more or less difficult to acquire this sound; but perseverance It is confessedly difficult to illustrate the sound of this rowel 1y the and of English letters, yet it is worthy an honest attempt 1. It may be acquired from a teacher, by sleer Anita ap 1 it a is all learners are not good imitators! If it can be law, in die time, overcome every obstacie. tal 1 ty analogons English sounds, it seems quite reasonable ij pame that tirough this process many more sind sts wooll and retand and anytime it than if they were left merly to the deutiful polary of mutation. Let me 17. before the pap - attempts to pronounce the French works used for examples let him observe most carefully the sound of tue last syllable of the flowing works when uttered as they usually are in common conversation, namely:— Moth er, Broth-er, Nov-er, S.s-ter, Wa-ter. Take any one of the abore English works, viz:-the first, Pronounce it naturally and aloud with a fall volo, veral times, until the common sound of the last syllable in seficular is familiar to the ear. Take each of those werds, and un practise, by pronouncing aloud carefully, but naturally, scaving at the samo time the sound of the last syllał ́e, bow, by what combination of letters would you reprosant Had comir By u, as in the first syllable of the English word! cu noh? or by ul. J Manifestly the latter. Below are a fey, 1. rch wande which you will now prooood to prononneo alond, công to flu yowel e in oa d example the last syilabio of taj Poeding en h of the following Fronch word. thly and whip the, we if an orelamation mark wors plae d + emol mp 3. When it is deemol necessary to express in French the diference existing in English between the words this and that, the adverbs ci and li may be placed after the nouns (§ 20 (2)). Jo n'ai pas ce parasol-ci, j'ai ce Ihre not this parasol, I have that prasoi là, panol 4. Tho demonstrativo provonna, celui, m., celle, f., this or that, o used to represent nuns, bat are never joined with them like detives $23, § 37 (172 J'ai mon parapluie et celui de votre I have my umbrella and your brother's Vous avez ma roba et celle de ma 5. The pronouns celui, celle, with the addition of the words ci and là, are used in the sense of this one, that one, the latter, the former [§ 37 (4)]. They agree in gender with the word which they represent. Vous avez celui-ci, mais vous n'avez pas celui-là, You have this one (the latter), but 28. The stranger has no poultry, but he has money. 29. Your 6. The pronouns ceci and cela are used absolutely, that is, the addition of s to the singular. Nous n'avons pas ceci, nous avons cela, We have not this, we have that. This or that. Un homme, une femme, 2. 1st EXCEPTION TO RULE 1.-Nouns ending in s, x, %, remain unchanged for the plural. Le bas, les bas, Le nez, les nez. The stocking, the stockings. The voice, the voices. The nose, the noses. The leases, the corals, the enamels. The air-holes, the labours, the underleases. 6. 5th EXCEPTION.-Nouns ending in al form their plural in aux. Le cheval, les chevaux, Le général, les généraux, The horse, the horses. The general, the generals. chacal, jackal; régal, treat, tor, form their plural irregularly. 7. 6th EXCEPTION.-Ciel, heaven; œil, eye; and aïeul, ances 1. Votre frère a-t-il son encrier d'argent? 2. Il ne l'a plus, il a un encrier de plomb. 3. Avons-nous la lettre de l'étranger? 4. Oai, Monsieur, nous avons celle de l'étranger. (R. 4.) 5. Votre soeur n'a pas son ardoise, mais elle a son chapeau de satin. 6. Le menuisier a-t-il votre bois ou le sien? 7. Il n'a ni le mien ni le sien, il a celui du jardinier. 8. Avez-vous mon bon parapluie de soie? 9. J'ai votre parapluie de soie et votre parasol de satin. 10. Avez-vous ma bouteille? 11. Je n'ai pas votre bouteille, j'ai la malle de votre sœur. 12. Le domestique a-t-il cette salière? 13. Il n'a pas cette salière-ci, il a celle-là. 14. Avez-vous le bon ou le mauvais poulet? 15. Je n'ai ni celui-ci ni celui-là. 16. Quel poulet avez-vous ? 17. J'ai celui du enisinier. 18. Le boulanger a-t-il de la volaille? (Sect. IV. 1.) Les Anglais ont-ils les chevaux du Have 19. Le boulanger n'a pas de volaille, il a du lait. (Sect. V. 5.) 20. Avez-vous votre fromage ou le mien ? 21. Je n'ai ni le vôtre ni le mien, j'ai celui du matelot. 22. Quelqu'un a-t-il faim? 23. Personne n'a faim. 24. Avez-vous quelque chose? 25. Non, Monsieur, je n'ai rien. 26. Avez-vous le sofa d'acajou de mon menuisier ? 27. Non, Monsieur, jo ne l'ai pas. 28. J'ai son joli miroir et son bon crayon. EXERCISE 14. 1. Has your brother that lady's umbrella? 2. My brother has that lady's umbrella? 3. Have you this parasol or that one? 4. I have neither this (one) nor that (one). 5. Have you the stranger's gold watch? 6. No, Sir, I have the baker's. 7. Who has my slate? 8. I have your slate and your brother's. 9. Has the cook a silver salt stand? 10. The cook has a silver salt stand, and a silver dish. 11. Has the cook this poultry or that? 12. He has neither this nor that. 13. Has he this bread or that? 14. He has neither this nor that, he has the baker's good bread. 15. Have you my cotton parasol ? 16. I have not your cotton parasol, I have your silk parasol. 17. Has the gardener a leather trunk? 18. The gardener has a leather trunk. 19. Who has my good cheese? 20. Nobody has your cheese, but some one has your brother's. 21. Have you mine or his? 22. I have neither yours nor his, I have the stranger's. 23. Has the cook this bottle or that broom? 24. He has this bottle. 25. Have you a lead inkstand? 26. No, Sir, I have a china inkstand. 27. Has the stranger poultry? The heavens, the eyes, the ancestors. Lux et les joujoux de l'enfant. 7. Les enfants ont-ils sin was le votre bois? 8. Ils n'ont pas les oiseaux de mon ils ont les chevaux de mon général. 9. Le maréchal - tai war paire de bas de laine? 10. Le maréchal a deux paires de laine. 11. Monsieur, n'avez-vous pas froid? 12. , Monsieur, j'ai chaud. 13. Avez-vous du café ou du 14. Je n'ai ni café ni chocolat. 15. N'avez-vous pas les choux de mon grand jardin ? 16. J'ai les légumes de tre petit jardin. 17. Votre fils, qu'a-t-il? 18. Mon fils n'a 1 pil. 19. Avez-vous deux morceaux de pain? 20. Le meunier a un morceau de pain et deux barils de farine. 21. L'épicier a-t-il du café, du thé, du chocolat, et du poivre? 22. Il a du thé et du café, et le chocolat et le poivre de votre marchand. 23. Qui a de l'argent? 24. Je n'ai pas d'argent, mais j'ai du papier. 25. Avez-vous de bon papier ? 26. J'ai de mauvais papier. EXERCISE 16. 1. Have you my brother's horses? ut t brother's horses, I have your cousin's hats. 3. Have the blacksmiths good iron? 4. The blacksmith has two pieces of iron. 5. Have you two pairs of stockings? 6. I have one pair of stockings and two pairs of gloves. 7. Has your sister the gold jewels? 8. My sister has the gold jewels and the paper playthings. 9. Have you the cabbages in your garden? 10. We have two cabbages in our garden. 11. Have you the silk hats? 12. The generals have the silk hats. 13. Have you coffee or sugar? 14. We have neither coffee nor sugar. 15. Are your brothers ashamed? 16. My brothers are neither ashamed nor afraid. 17. Who has two barrels of flour? 18. The miller has two barrels of flour. 19. Have the birds bread? 20. The birds have no bread. 21. Has the merchant tea, chocolate, sugar, and pepper? 22. He has sugar and pepper, but he has neither tea nor chocolate. 23. What has your sister? 24. She has nothing. 25. What is the matter with your brother? 26. Nothing is the matter with him. 27. Is he not cold? 28. He 2. I have not your is not cold, he is warm. COPY-SLIP NO. 8.-COMBINATION OF THE LETTERS U, t. COPY-SLIP NO. 9.-COMBINATION OF THE LETTERS 1, i. es As it is impossible for any one who is attempting to teach himself the art of Penmanship to write well without practice, we now give three more combinations of pairs of the four letters that the reader has already learned to make, before passing on to other letters of the alphabet in writing, for whose formation strokes are required that differ in shape and character from the first elementary stroke that forms the basis of the letters i, u, t, l. At this stage of our Lessons in Penmanship, it may not be out of place to say something about the kind of handwriting that the students of this part of the POPULAR EDUCATOR are practising, and to give those who may feel disposed to rule paper for themselves, in imitation of our copy-slips, a few brief instructions that will enable them to do so. First, with regard to the kind or description of handwriting that is set before our readers in our present series of elementary copy-slips, it should be said that it is called Large Text, and that it is the largest, plainest, and boldest of the four kinds of handwriting usually practised by learners. The three hands that yet remain to be named are termed Text Hand, Round Hand or HM Small or Running Hand. Of these, Large T between lines half an inch apart; Text -third of an inch apart; Round ty-fourths of an inch apart, or H rather less than one-fourth of an inch; and Small Hand, on Large Text inch. Text Hand inch. Round Hand Small Hand inch. inch. Now, to show our readers how to rule a page wherein to copy any of the examples that have been or will be given, let us suppose that the learner wishes to prepare paper for copying t 1, as in Copyslip No. 10. First rule two lines, one on either side of the page, close to the margin, from top to bottom, taking care that they are parallel to each other-that is to say, at equal distances from each other all the way down. Then rule a line across the top of the page, also close to the margin and at right angles to the parallel lines at the sides of the paper, or square with them," as a joiner would say, and, commencing from this line, set off with compasses along the side lines distances equal to ed, da, ac, eb, in order, as in Copy-slip No. 10, and repeat this as often as the length of the paper will allow, taking care to leave a space of one-fourth of an inch between the last of each set of five lines and the first of the next which 66 |