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1. Custódis. 2. Fulcítur. 3. Venit. 4. Cur dormis ? 5. Bene dormit. 6. Eruditur. 7. Pungis. 8. Occídit. 9. Valde fallis. 10. Auditur. 11. Si valde dormis puníris. 12. Reperit. 13. Si bene erudis laudáris. 14. Vincítur. 15. Cur taces? 16. Tacet et punítur. 17. Reperiuntur. 18. Vestiris. 19. Bene vestiuntur. 20. Si bene vestímini delectamini. 21. Male erudiuntur. 22. Si vincĕris vincíris. EXERCISE 10.-ENGLISH-LATIN.

1. Why do you slay? 2. He is guarded. 3. They guard. 4. If you are guarded you are conquered. 5. He blames and punishes. 6. He hears and is instructed. 7. You are well educated. 8. Thou sleepest much. 9. They read. 10. If you dance you are delighted. 11. He is supported. 12. Why are they punished? 13. They are heard. 14. I am clothed ill. 15. They are struck and reminded. RECAPITULATION-TERMINATIONS OR PERSON-ENDINGS

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OF

imus 1st per. -āmur -ēmur -Imur -imur -êtis -Itis -itis 2nd -amini -êmini -Imini -imini -ent -unt -iunt. 3rd -antur -entur -untur -iuntur

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EXERCISE 11.-LATIN-ENGLISH.

1. Cedo. 2. Legis. 3. Movémus. 4. Exercéris. 5. Mordent. 6. Florent et gaudent. 7. Legère tentat. 8. Cur male legis ? 9. Dormit male. 10. Valde diligĕris. 11. Vincimini. 12. Bene scribunt. 13. Si bene pingitis laudámini. 14. Defendĭmur. 15. Ferímus. 16. Cur punítis? 17. Vestímur. 18. Vincímus. 19. Vincimur. 20. Vincímur. 21. Vincitis. 22. Custodiris. 23. Ornátur. 24. Laudantur. 25. Timémur. 26. Valde times. 27. Mordémini. 28. Educámus. 29. Male saltant.

EXERCISE 12.-ENGLISH-LATIN.

1. They yield. 2. If you yield you are conquered. 3. If you are conquered you are bound. 4. I am supported. 5. They sleep. 6. Why do they punish? 7. Why are they punished? 8. You are clothed ill. 9. Thou conquerest. 10. Thou art conquered. 11. Thou bindest. 12. Thou art bound. 13. They prick. 14. They are pricked. 15. Why dost thou move?

As in the exercises which are immediately to follow, we shall have occasion for parts of the verb, esse, to be, I shall here lay before you so much of that verb as may be necessary for my

purpose.

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do not commonly say good am I. But in Latin we may say either sum bonus, I am good or bonus sum, good am I. This change in the relative position of the words of a sentence, is called inversion. The Latin language has great capability of inversion. The inversions which it employs are neither unnatural nor arbitrary. The inversions depend on the sense. If we wish to throw emphasis on the epithet good, then we must place bonus first. For example, suppose you wish to say that I am good but not safe, you do so by putting bonus before sum. But if you wish to say I am good, in opposition to some one who says you are not good, then, you say, sum bonus, and not bonus sum. As then these inversions were a means by which the Romans gave expression to their own feelings and opinions, they were with them perfectly natural; and if they have the appearance of being unnatural to us, it is merely because we express emphasis differently; that is, we express by certain tones of the voice the emphasis which they expressed by the position of words. In saying this, however, I do not mean to assert that the Romans never gave emphasis by intonation. The beginning of a sentence is the place of chicf emphasis; next to this stands the end; an intermediate position has least emphasis.

EXERCISE 13.-LATIN-ENGLISH.

1. Boni sumus. 2. Bonus est. 3. Bonus es. 4. Non sum bonus. 5. Cæcus est. 6. Non est cæcus. 7. Valde docti sunt. 8. Salvi estis. 9. Non estis salvi. 10. Indoctus sum. 11. Indocti estis. 12. Non est indoctus. 13. Valde doctus es. 14. Cur malus es? 15. Non sum malus. 16. Sumus boni. 17. Est indoctus. 18. Cur es indoctus ? 19. Non sum indoctus. 20. Sumus salvi. 21. Salvi sumus. 22. Doctus et salvus es.

EXERCISE 14.-ENGLISH-LATIN.

1. I am learned. 2. I am not learned. 3. He is learned. 4. They are learned. 5. You are bad. 6. You are not bad. 7. Thou art good. 8. They are good. 9. They are not good. 10. Why are they not good? 11. He is blind. 12. He is not blind. 13. Why is he blind? 14. Thou art not unlearned. 15. Thou art blind and not safe. They are blind. 17. You are good and safe. 18. He is very unlearned.

KEY TO EXERCISES IN LESSONS IN LATIN II.
EXERCISE 3.-LATIN-ENGLISH.

16.

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12. Thou adornest. 13. They are educated. 14. Thou art grieved. 15. You are wounded. 16. I delight. 17. Thou delightest. 18. He delights. 19. We delight. 20. You delight. 21. They delight. 22. I am delighted. 23. Thou art delighted. 24. He is delighted. 25. We are delighted. 26. You are delighted. 27. They are delighted. EXERCISE 4.-ENGLISH-LATIN. 1. Laudo. 2. Laudas. 3. Laudat. 6. Laudant. 7. Laudor. 8. Laudaris. 11, Laudamini. 12. Laudantur. 13. Vexamini. 16. Educantur. 17. Saltat. tamus. 20. Tentamini. 21. Vulneratur.

4. Laudamus. 5. Laudatis. 9. Laudatur. 10. Laudamur. Delectant. 14. Ornas. 15. 18. Vituperamini. 19. Ten22. Educor.

LESSONS IN DRAWING.—III. BEFORE commencing our remarks upon the methods of drawing solid objects, we must lay before the pupil some very important rules belong to Perspective. As we are now getting into deeper rules with regard to retiring lines and retiring planes; these water, we must ask for the patient attention of the pupil in a branch of the subject which would be much easier to explain in his presence, with the help of a piece of chalk and the blackboard, than to express in writing. First, then, retiring lines For instance, suppose we are are lines which go away from us. standing at the end of a street and looking down its length; the lines of the eaves, and spouts, tops and bottoms of windows, and doors, etc., are retiring lines. And secondly, the fronts of the houses are retiring planes, or surfaces. Again, sit at the end of a table; the lines or edges on the right side and on the left are retiring lines, and the surface or top of the table is a retiring plane; so that retiring planes, like retiring lines, may be horizontal (parallel with the earth), perpendicular (upright), or inclined. We also direct the attention of the pupil to Figs. 28, 29, etc. In Fig. 28, f b, g d, h e, and i c are horizontal retiring lines, and the whole surface of the pavement is a retiring horizontal plane. In Fig. 29 the wall to the left is a retiring perpendicular plane. In Fig. 30 the fronts of the steps are

parallel perpendicular retiring planes. The tops of the steps are horizontal retiring planes. In Fig. 31 the lid of the box from its position is an inclined retiring plane.

We advise the pupil now to make himself familiar with the following fixed principles relating to retiring lines and planes:1. The Line of Sight, or, as it is sometimes called, the horizontal line, represents the height of the eye in the picture, which, when we come to the explanation of these terms, we will mark in the illustrations H L (see Figs. 23 and 29).

2. The Point of Sight, marked Ps, is the point opposite the eye in the picture, and is consequently upon the line of sight. 3. The Station Point is the place where the spectator is supposed to stand when viewing the object represented; marked s P.

4. A Ground Plan is the horizontal extent of the object when drawn upon the ground.

5. The Vanishing Point is that point in the plane or surface of the picture, where retiring lines if produced or continued, would meet or terminate; marked v P.

6. All retiring lines have vanishing points.

7. All horizontal retiring lines have their vanishing points upon the line of sight.

8. All parallel retiring lines have the same vanishing point.

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each way within a greater angle, he would have to turn his head, and consequently he would require two or more points of sight; this is only allowable in panoramas (viz., long pictures generally placed upon upright rollers, and so drawn out as a ribbon would be from a reel), when the view of a country for any number of miles in extent is exhibited; the proper or more convenient distance from the object is, when it is placed within an angle of from 20° to 25°.

Let a b, Fig. 25, be two objects to be drawn in the same picture; the distance from them at c would be the nearest approach we could make; then the angle a eb would be an angle of 60°. If we removed our position to d, then the angle would be much less, and more suitable for our picture.

We beg it may be understood that hereafter when we say drawing from Nature, we allude to all objects, trees, buildings, etc. Although buildings are not natural objects, yet they are included under this expression.

4th. Ground Plan. The best illustration of a ground plan is a map; it has nothing to do with heights or depths. Suppose the walls of a house were removed, and only the foundations left, we should then see the plan of the house.

5th. Vanishing Point (v P). If a line be drawn from the eye parallel to any original straight line of the object the point PS & VP

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Fig. 27 (a).

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9. All horizontal lines which are parallel with the picture plane, are drawn parallel with each other, and the line of sight. 10. All horizontal retiring lines forming right angles with the picture plane, or with our position, have the point of sight, for their vanishing point.

11. All lines inclined with the horizon, and with the picture plane, have their vanishing points above or below the line of sight, according to the angle they form with the horizon, their vanishing points being always on a line perpendicular to the vanishing point upon the line of sight, to which they would have retired had they been horizontal.

Before going any further we will endeavour to explain the above fixed principles or definitions, taking them in their order. 1st. The Line of Sight, H L (horizontal line), is drawn parallel with the base of the picture, according to the height of the eye from the ground. If we are drawing a house from a higher point of view than when standing or seated on the ground, the line of sight will be higher in the former than in the latter case. 2nd. The Point of Sight (PS) is subject to the same conditions as to its height from the ground as the line of sight.

3rd. The Station Point (8 P) may be at almost any distance from the object that is most convenient; but observe, if too ncar, we get a distorted view of the object when drawing from Nature. Let the reader for a moment place himself in an upright position his head perfectly still, and turn his eyes to the righ 4t; all that he can possibly see whilst so 'doir: of 60 (sixty degrees), considerably king at to make a pleasing picture, g. But if he included more objects,

where that line cuts the picture plane (or surface of the picture) is the vanishing point of that original line. When the pupil has read this, let him rise from his chair, and stand about eight or nine feet from the window, and look out upon the objects beyond. Suppose that a house is in sight, having one of its corners towards him. If he stood without moving from the position he has chosen, and took a long stick having a piece of charcoal, or something that will make a mark on glass, fastened to the end, he might trace the form of the house upon the glass in the same way as tracing a drawing through a piece of thin paper; he would then have made a true perspective drawing of that house upon the glass. This glass is the picture plane; the place where he stands when making the tracing is the station point. Now, supposing the retiring side of the building he is tracing is on the left as he looks at it, let him raise his left arm and hold it parallel to that retiring face or plare of the building, he will then be pointing to the vanishing point of the retiring face or plane, and all horizontal lines upon that plane would be retiring also, and consequently meet at the same vanishing point.

He might, for the sake of experiment, actually make a tracing on the window of one or more of the parallel retiring lines of the building, and at the same time make a mark upon the wall for the vanishing point. Then if he continue the traced lines on the glass he would eventually find that they will meet the mark upon the wall, that mark being the vanishing point; and he would also find that the mark upon the wall is on a level with his eye, on the line of sight. He would find also that if there were any other lines parallel with the window, these lines when traced would be parallel with the line of sight, and be drawn

horizontally on the glass. This explains all that is meant in
the definitions numbered 5, 6, 7, 8, 9. If there be any other
lines of walls or buildings to be seen through the window which
are at right angles with it, these lines have the point of sight
for their vanishing point; just as the retiring lines of the
covers of the books at A and B in Fig. 26, which are at right
angles to the edge of the table on which they are lying have
their vanishing point in the point of sight, while those that
are not at right angles to
the edge of the table, as at E
and F, have their vanishing
points to the right and left
of the point of sight. This
observation will explain Defi-
nition 10.

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same way with the other lines d ge h and c i. Now observe, if all these lines were produced towards the line of sight, H L, they would meet at the P S. The other parallel lines, k, l, m, etc., must be carefully arranged according to the principles we have already laid down in our introductory lessons. The pupil may naturally inquire if there are not some perspective rules for regulating the retiring horizontal distances of objects, as well as their heights. We answer, there are. We do not intend to avoid this question, but put PS and VP it off for the present, lest the pupil should become too early involved in technicalities that belong especially to geometrical perspectivea branch of drawing to be considered hereafter. With reference to the retiring lines of the pavement (Fig. 28), we have a fitting illustration in a railroad; probably the pupil has observed when standing on a railway bridge and looking down the line, that the rails as they retired. seemingly converged to a point in the distance; that point would be the vanishing

d

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Fig.28

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a

rectangular

term used in reference to
objects of
form, such as the interior of
a room, a cube, etc., when
these objects are so placed
that their retiring sides are at
a right angle with the picture
plane, P P, and the remaining
sides are parallel to the same,
as in Fig. 27 (a).

Angular perspective alludes to objects of the same form so placed that all the sides retire, as in Fig. 27 (b), which is the plan of a room in angular perspective, having one of its angles towards the picture plane P P, and its four sides retiring.

PS'

Parallel perspective is the more simple of the two, and easier to be understood, we therefore commence with that. The first example is a pavement (Fig. 28).

Draw the horizontal line, H L, and place upon it a point marked P s and V P (point of sight and vanishing point). The reason that it is both the point of sight and the vanishing point has been explained in Definition 10. Then mark the distance of a from P 8, through a draw the line b c, and divide it in the points d and e; place the pencil on P S, and draw it over the paper through b to f, mark f, join bf, proceed precisely in the

Fig. 51

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point; therefore, in drawing.
lines so placed, our having a
vanishing point renders the
task much easier, and insures
that which is so very desir.
able, a truthful result. Let
Fig. 28 be practised over and
over again, until the various
lines which compose it can be
drawn with ease and readi-
ness. Fig. 29 is the same,
with the addition of a wall on
the left. After the last example
the manner of drawing it will
be self-evident. Fig. 30, a
flight of steps; the retiring
edges of the steps are all
The
drawn towards the P S.
other examples require no
further explanation. Should

the pupil in going along with us through these lessons have made some failures, and found some difficulties, there is no doubt that most of them may be attributed to one great neglect which all beginners so readily fall into, that is, the not" marking in the distances" before they attempt to draw the lines. It is the common failing with the majority of beginners, that they attempt to draw the lines without first arranging their positions. We have said quite enough of the practical way of proceeding with the arrange. ment of lines, but once more, let the attention of the pupil be ever directed to the "whereabouts" of the lines of his drawing.

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rus st a Deo

Buite by God.

air understand what
ajective case.
2. but in both,
ugh in the former,

, and in the latter
Look also at
gominative mundus is,
Taged nto mundum. Here
gusa word world repre-
· n the nominative it is
ere's no alteration of form
res a change of relation;
, in number 2 it is the
no digis, then, does not conform
iversity of relations in nouns
y in a limited degree. In
'anguage has long been to
ons which it borrowed from its
oney has for ages continued to
It is a tendency which deserves
esperdon as it is effectual, it gives
Age, and makes the acquisition
A rapid.

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opositions have each an object as well alty the case, and such is the case ihat appear. In our standard phrase peased. And the statement may be Kiesence to an object. Verbs in which lear and obvious reference to an mere vorba that is, verbs the action of in, not; trans, across; eo, I go) Altred sleeps, Alfred runs, Alfred rides, transitive verbs; because in each with the subject. But these and most may become transitive by having an Object.

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Alfred runs.
Alfred runs a long way.
Alfred sings.
Alfred sings a fine song.

i

Contrasted with the indefinite article a, is another form, which bears the name of the definite article; that is, the. The is a reduced form of these. Consequently the refers to an object previously mentioned or known; as

Alfred reads THE writing;

he reads, that is, some writing known to the speaker.

We have already found a form of speech which qualifies nouns namely, the adjective. We may therefore insert a suitable adjective in this lengthening form; thus:

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soon reads TO ME the obscure writing and manuscript.

Me is a pronoun, as we found he to be. Me, you see, holds the
place of a noun. Me is the objective case corresponding to the
nominative case I. Our pronouns, as you here see, have some
diversities of case, for in them you find varying forms corre-
sponding to varieties of meaning. The other word just added—
The word preposition
namely, to, is called a preposition.
signifies, according to its Latin element, that which is put before;
a preposition, then, is a word put before a noun; and it is put
before a noun in order to modify its signification, or mark the
relation in which the noun stands to another word, or to other
words; e.g.—

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where to, from, with, and of are prepositions.

In the ordinary list of the parts of speech stands the participle. This word, of Latin origin, denotes the partaker (from pars, a part, and capio, I take). The participle is so denominated because it partakes of the qualities of the verb and the adjective. Thus shining is a participle from the verb to shine. It may also be employed as an adjective. Thus,

PARTICIPLE. The sun shining disperses the clouds.
ADJECTIVE. The shining sun dazzles the eyes.

The right of the participle to be accounted a separate part of speech has been contested not without reason. Perhaps less valid is the claim of the interjection. An interjection (inter, Srdce in general have an object, then we must between, and jacio, I cast) is a sound of surprise, or sorrow, ce, caminabinal formula; thus: -

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soon reads to me the obscure writing and manuscript. 1. Noun. 2. Participle. 3. Adverb. 4. Verb. 5. Preposition. 6. Pronoun. 7. Article. 8. Adjective. 9. Conjunction.

The form is thus seen to comprise nine parts of speech. If the interjection, or exclamation, is to be reckoned a part of speech, it may be prefixed in the shape of Yes! Here, then, we find a condensed view of all the parts of speech, and in the remarks by which the view has been prefaced and prepared, lies the kernel of the entire English Grammar. If you have gone with me understandingly thus far, you will have no difficulty in following me to the end, for having developed these general facts and in Latin a little joint). A is principles, I have now only to take up each part of speech in

-tem alanda thun :

• wyling

Enccession, and, in connection with it, enter into such particulars as may appear desirable with a view to my object.

Before I close the chapter, however, I will add a few general remarks respecting the actual classification, which bears the name of the nine (or ten) parts of speech. The aim of the classification is to arrange under separate heads all the words of the English (or any other) language. Now a good classification has two qualities: first. it is exhaustive; secondly, it is distincte. It is exhaustive- that is, it comprises and places under some suitable head all the facts. It is distinctive—that is, it makes such clear and sharp distinctions as to place the several facts each under its own head, without confounding similar facts together, or putting under one head facts which may as properly stand under another head.

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(1) (2) (3) (4) (5) (6) (7) And lo! Stanley rising quickly caused great wrath in the king. 1. Conjunction. 2. Interjection. 3. Noun. 4. Participle. 5. Adverb. 6. Verb. 7. Adjective. 8. Preposition. 9. Article. In the last example, one part of speech is omitted to exercise the mind of the student, who is also expected to effect the reduction of the proposition to the name of being and the name of action. Let the reader carefully study and analyse the following sentences

1. Propositions without an object.

2. Propositions with an object.

The classification under review is neither exhaustive nor dis- Birds sing. Cows graze. Rabbits burrow. Dogs fight. Children play. tinctive. It is not exhaustive, for it leaves out the infinitive nood, which has as good a right to be called a part of speech as the participle. It is not distinctive, for the term adjective makes no distinction where a distinction exists, and the term participle makes a distinction where no distinction is required. Indeed, the classification is wholly unscientific, being based not on a principle, but on vague and general views. Something less objectionable may be offered in the following words.

The sun lights the earth. The trees produce fruit. The rain waters the meadows. Storms purify the air. The universe proclaims its Author. Qualifying words may be added at will, as—

3. Propositions with a subject and object qualified.

overcharge all their goods. A diligent scholar learns all his lessons.
My young brother teased the little animals. Avaricious tradesmen
I subjoin some fragments to be made into complete sen-
tences:-
1. Propositions lacking subjects.

- leads a blind man.

duty.

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avoids bad company. - promises a rich harvest.

much money.

2. Propositions lacking objects. Disobedient children deserve - The proud despise Cover- A bad child grioves- An honest debtor pays

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Thick clouds
Wise men

3. Propositions lacking verbs. The eldest sister- the younger ones. The father his incorrigible son. Noisy boys the neighbourhood. The police public order. A grateful daughter tender mother. The divine Saviour human infirmities.

Speech corresponds to the realities which it represents. Those realities are thoughts and things. Now, thoughts and things may be reduced to three classes:-1, Objects; 2, qualities of objects; 3, actions. Consequently, the essential parts of speech are the noun, the adjective, and the verb. But objects and their qualities are the same things differently viewed. We may therefore strike out qualities. Thus we have two classes leftcamely, the noun and the verb. Verbs, however, are the names of action, as nouns are the names of being. Hence language rebuke resolves itself into names. We may, then, declare that speech is made up of names. These names may be expanded and divided into 1, names of being, or nouns; 2, names of action, or verbs; and 3, names of qualities, or adjectives. Under the last head, or names of qualities, may stand other parts of speech, for the adverb names the quality of the action of the verb, and the article names the extent in which the noun is to be taken. The term particles has not inappropriately been applied to adverbs and conjunctions, for. to a considerable degree they appear to be parts (particles-that is, little parts) or fragments of once existing nouns and verbs. If, however, our analysis of language mto names of being and names of action is correct, then the sentence which, as given above, contains all the nine parts of peech, may be reduced to two; as,

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Our

It may here be necessary, by anticipation, to inform the totally
uneducated student that, when the verb is singular it has s at
the end, when plural it is without s. The verb must be in the
singular number when the noun or pronoun connected with it
denotes only one person or thing; and the verb must be in the
plural number when the noun or pronoun connected with it
denotes more than one person or thing; e.g.—

SINGULAR: A boy loves; the house stands; the duck swims.
PLURAL: Boys love; houses stand; ducks swim.

The rule might be put in another form, as, when the noun has an
s (or is in the plural) the verb is without; and when the verb
has an s the noun is without.

LESSONS IN GEOGRAPHY.-III.

NOTIONS OF THE GREEKS AND ROMANS.

THE desire for nautical expeditions, which, under the excitement of commercial enterprise, had begun to spread among the These nations, was restrained by the conquests of the Romans. conquests, however, if they did not extend the boundaries of the known world, at least enriched the domain of geographical knowledge with new facts, and more exact than those which had been collected and taken for granted by the writers of former ages. The three Punic (Carthaginian) wars, the Illyrian war, the contests with the Gauls, the expeditions against Spain, and those of Etius Gallus into Arabia and Ethiopia, all contributed, in their turn, to give to this science a more positive character and more varied details. Polybius, about 150 years before the age of Hipparchus, gave a description of the world which, notwithstanding his numerous errors, evinced remarkable progress in the knowledge of the globe. The new acquisitions of the Romans, and of Mithridates Eupator, the campaigns of Julius Caesar in Gaul and in Britain, rendered accessible the knowledge of countries hitherto but partially explored, or altogether unknown. Posidonius, a Syrian, resident at Rhodes, endeavoured to correct the measurement of the earth's circumference formerly made by Eratosthenes. He observed that when the star Canopus, in the constellation Argo, became visible in the horizon of Rhodes, it was elevated seven degrees and a half above the horizon of Alexandria. He supposed these places to

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