these enterprises, the celebrated Caius Secundus Pliny availed himself, in his Natural History. He also knew how to dip with considerable discernment into the writings of the Greeks; but he appears not to have considered it necessary to consult the work of Strabo. From the information he had obtained in this way, he assigned to the different quarters of the world then known the following magnitudes :-To Europe, one-third; to Asia, one-fourth; and to Africa one-fifth of the whole.

Marinus of Tyre, who preceded Ptolemy, was distinguished for his geographical knowledge. He took advantage of all ancient and contemporary writers to compose a complete treatise on the subject of geography and maps; and he even prepared new editions of his books, corrected and improved in proportion as he obtained more exact information; but it is to be regretted that these have not reached us. At last appeared, about the middle of the second century, the famous Ptolemy, who lived at Alexandria in Egypt, and taught astronomy there. His system of astronomy and geography, which stood unimpeached for about twelve centuries, and received the name of the Ptolemaic system from its author, was not superseded till Copernicus appeared; and notwithstanding his errors, due more to the ignorance of mankind than to himself, his name is still revered as a geographer and astronomical observer. His work entitled the "Megale Syntaxis, or Great Construction," is a monument of his labour and his learning. He examined the ratio of the length of the gnomon or style of the sun-dial to its shadow at the equinoxes and the solstices; he calculated eclipses; he investigated the calculations founded on the difference of climate, and carefully consulted the reports of travellers and navigators. He reduced his information and observations into a regular system, and expressed the positions of places by longitude and latitude, after the manner of Hipparchus. His great work consists nearly of an elementary picture of the earth, in which its figure and size, and the positions of places on its surface, are determined. It contains only a very short outline of the division of countries, with scarcely any historical notice. It is supposed that a detailed account was added to this outline, but it has not reached us. His geography is contained in eight books, and is certainly more scientific than any previous work on the subject. He taught how to determine the longitude by lanar eclipses, and by this method ascertained that of many places with tolerable accuracy.

According to Ptolemy, the limits of the world were Thule on the north, and the Prassum Promontorium on the south, the former being, most probably, some part of Norway, and the latter some unknown point south-west of Madagascar. Its limits on the west were the Fortunate Isles, now the Canaries; and on the east, Thinæ in Sinæ or China. He rejected the theory of all preceding geographers, who represented the world as surrounded by an impassable ocean on all sides; and he replaced it by an indefinite expanse of unknown land. He rejected the true reports of circumnavigation of Africa, and extended its limits southward beyond all reasonable bounds.

| Beloor Mountains, and reached the celebrated Lithinos Pyrgos, or "Stone Tower," a station whose site is still a doubtful question among geographers. From this station to the frontier of Serica was a seven months' hard and perilous journey. The description which Ptolemy gives of Serica corresponds more exactly to China than any other country; and his account of the manners and customs of the inhabitants identifies it still more. Moreover, the staple commodity of this overland trade was silk, for which China has been celebrated from time immemorial. Ptolemy appears to have had a considerable knowledge of Hindostan or India, both within and beyond the Ganges; a knowledge said to be superior to that of the moderns till within the limits of the present century. With regard to Africa, this statement may just be reversed. But, on the whole, his work must be considered a singular monument of industry, and a valuable book of reference in all matters relating to the ancient geography of the world.

40. Ê, ê, CIRCUMFLEX.-Name, ai; sound, like the letters ai in the English word stair.

É has a longer and broader sound than è. The mouth must be opened wider in pronouncing the former than the latter. In ordinary reading and common conversation, the difference between é and è is hardly perceptible. Still there is a difference; just the difference between pronouncing e like the letters ai in the English word stair with the mouth half opened, and pronouncing the same letters in the same word with the mouth well opened, and also prolonging the sound. Practice will demonstrate this.

FRENCH.

EEEFFF

Crêpe

Dépêche

Extrême

With Europe, Ptolemy was tolerably well acquainted; and he described Germany and Sarmatia with some degree of accuracy. He knew the Ems, the Weser, the Elbe, the Oder, and the Vistula. He calls Jutland the Cimbric Chersonese or Peninsula, and the Baltic, the Sarmatic Ocean; but he failed in his account of this inland sea. He was better acquainted Crême with the south of Russia in Europe, with the Tanais, the Borysthenes, and the Euxine, or Black Sea. In his description of the Mediterranean there are many errors; but his account is more accurate with them all than that of any previous geographer. In regard to Asia, his knowledge was obscure and unsatisfactory, though some features can be still identified with fact. Here he described the "Golden Chersonese," and the Magnus Sinus, or Great Bay of India. These appear to have been the IndoChinese countries of Ava, Pegu, and Malacca, with their adjacent gulfs or bays; and Thine, which he places at this remote corner, is supposed to be Siam, rather than any place in China. The Serica of Ptolemy in the north of Asia is supposed, with good reason, to be China, which was reached by great trading caravans, which proceeded from Byzantium (or Constantinople), across Asia Minor, erossing the Euphrates at Hierapolis, and passing through Media, by way of Ecbatana to Hecatompylos, the capital of Parthia. Their next route was through Hyrcania, Aria, Margiana, and Bactria, whence they ascended the table-land of the interior of Asia, passed over the Montes Comedorum, or

is

Kraip

Crape.

Day-paish Dispatch.
To be.
Extreme.

Aitr'

Eks-traim

Prêcher Prai-shay To preach.

Prai

Raiv

Ready.
Dream.

Tait

Head.

SECTION X-PLURALS OF PRONOUNS, ETC.

1. The plural form of the pronouns le, him or it; la, her or it,
les, them, for both genders. Its place is also before the verb.
Vons les avez. Les avez-vous? You have them. Have you them?
Nous ne les avons pas,
We have them not.

2. The plural of the article, preceded by the preposition de, of or from, is des for both genders.

Des livres, des plumes,
Des frères, des sœurs,

Of or from the books, of the pens. Of or from the brothers, of the sisters. 3. The same form of the article is placed before plural nouns used in a partitive sense [Sect. IV. 1].

avole also to plural nouns right or wrong? 8. I am right, I am not wrong.

We are no books.

You have good pencils.
wijentives mon, ton, son,
us has, her; nos, our;

9. Has the tinman my silver candlesticks or yours? 10. He has neither your silver candlesticks nor mine. 11. What has he? 12. He has the cabinet-maker's wooden tables. 13. Has he your mahogany chairs? 14. No, Sir, he has my white marble tables. 15. Have you these tables or those? 16. I have neither these nor those, I have the cabinet-maker's. 17. Have you good pencilcases? 18. No, Sir, but I have good pencils. 19. Has the traveller iron guns? 20. Yes. Sir, he has mine, yours, and his. 21. Has he not your brother's? 22. He has not my brother's. n. a mienne, etc. Sect. 23. Has the workman my iron hammers? 24. Yes, Sir, he has

Mothers, my sisters.

far 5008, our pens,

them. 25. Has my brother your pens or my cousin's ? 26. He has mine and yours. 27. Have you the children's clothes? 28. Yes, Madam, I have them. 29. Have you your sister's hat? 30. I have my cousin's, f. 31. Is anything the matter with your brother? 32. He is cold and hungry. 33. Have you horses? 34. Yes, Sir, I have two horses. 35. I have two horse-hair mattresses and one wool mattress.

SECTION XI.

AGREEMENT OF ADJECTIVES-FEMININE OF ADJECTIVES.

1. The adjective in French, whatever may be its place,* agrees in gender and number with the noun which it qualifies § 15 (1) (2)).

2. Adjectives ending with e mute, i.e., not accented, retain that termination for the feminine.

4. EXCEPTIONS.-Adjectives ending in el, eil, en, et, on, as, and es, double the last consonant and take e for the feminine.

MISC.
Essentiel,

1

2. Qui, Ven4. Nou, Monsiour, 6. L'aubergiste mes chevaux

Vous etes,

Eles sout, f.,

Ils sont, m.,

You are.

Interrogatively.
Suis-je ?

Am I?

Es-tu?

Est-il ?
Est-elle ?
Sommes-nous?

Art thou? Is he?

Is she?

Are we?

Etes-vous ?

Are you?

Avez-vous un garçon
une fille diligente?
M garçon est diligent, mais ma
' est paresseuse. (R. 5.)
(^,cte contume est-elle ancienne ?
C.(te coutume n'est pas ancienne,
io est nouvelle. (R. 6.)
Votre plume, f, est-elle bonne ou Is your pen good or bad?

Have you a diligent boy and a dili-
gent girl?

My boy is diligent, but my daughter
is idle.

Mayur est très-vive. (R. 5.)
Votre mason est-elle meilleure que

d. I have wother youre te maison de ma sœur n'est pas si
Have you thou
Donne que la vitre.

Is this custom ancient?

This custom is not ancient, it is

new.

My sister is very lively.

Is your house better than mine?

My sister's house is not so good as

yours.

• For the place of adjectives sce Sect. XIII., and Sect. VI. 5.

Parasol, m., parasol.
Petit, -e, small.
Paresseux, -se, idle.
Porcelaine, f., china.
Que, than.
Vieux, vieille, old.
um- Vif, vive, quick, lively.

1. Cette dame est-elle contente? 2. Non, Monsieur, cette dame n'est pas contente. 3. Votre fille est-elle vive? 4. Mon fils est très vif et ma fille est paresseuse. 5. N'a-t-elle pas tort? 6. Elle n'a pas raison. 7. Votre cousine est-elle heureuse? Oui, Madame, elle est bonne, belle, et heureuse. 9. A-t-elle des amis. 10. Oui, Monsieur, elle a des parents et des amis. 11. A-t-elle une robe neuve et de vieux souliers? 12. Elle a de vieux souliers et une vieille robe. 13. Votre frère n'a-t-il pas un bel habit? (R. 6.) 14. Il a un bel habit et une bonne cravate. 15. Avez-vous de bonne viande, Monsieur ? 16. J'ai de la viande excellente. 17. Cette viande-ci est-elle meilleure que celle-là ? 18. Celle-ci est meilleure que celle-là. 19. Votre ami a-t-il le bel encrier de porcelaine? 20. Son encrier est beau, mais il n'est pas de porcelaine. 21. Quelqu'un a-t-il faim? 22. Personne n'a faim. 23. Les généraux sont-ils ici? 24. Les généraux et les maréchaux sont ici. 25. J'ai vos parasols et vos parapluies, et ceux de vos enfants.

EXERCISE 20.

2. Start from the same position, and, after each backward movement, bring the wand over the head and down in front to the knees.

3. Hold the wand over the head as before; then bring it down on each side alternately, by lowering one hand and raising the other, until the wand is in a perpendicular position. Remember still that the elbows must not be bent.

4. Now hold the wand in an upright position in front of you, the hands near the middle, and about six inches apart; the arms extended forward as nearly straight as possible. Keeping the legs and arms stiff, move the wand from side to side as far as you can reach, the upper part of the body partly turning at each movement.

8. 5. Standing erect, with the right hand put the wand out at a right angle in front of you, one end resting on the floor; the body and the wand being both perpendicular, and the right arm in the horizontal position, the left hand resting on the hip. Now, from this position, step out with the right leg as far as you can reach, the foot passing behind the wand. The elbow must not be bent, and the wand must remain unmoved. Return to the erect position, the wand still held forward, and repeat these movements ten times in succession. This is called charging," and is good exercise for the legs and the lower part of the body.

1. Is your little sister pleased ? 2. Yes, Madam, she is pleased. 3. Is that little girl handsome? 4. That little girl is not handsome, but she is good. 5. Have you good cloth and good silk ? 6. My cloth and silk are here. 7. Is your sister happy? 8. My sister is good and happy. 9. Has that physician's sister friends? 10. No, Madam, she has no friends. 11. Is your meat good? 12. My meat is good, but my cheese is

better. 13. Has the bookseller a handsome china inkstand? 14. He has a fine silver inkstand and a pair of leather shoes. 15. Have you my silk parasols ? 16. I have your cotton umbrellas. 17. Is your brother's coat handsome? 18. My

brother has a handsome coat and an old silk cravat. 19. Have

you relations and friends? 20. I have no relations, but I have friends. 21. Is that handsome lady wrong? 22. That handsome lady is not wrong. 23. Have you handsome china ? 24. Our china is handsome and good. 25. It is better than yours. 26. Is not that little girl hungry? 27. That handsome little girl is neither hungry nor thirsty. 28. What is the matter with her? 29. She has neither relations nor friends. 30. Is this gold watch good? 31. This one is good, but that one is better. 32. Have you it? 33. I have it, but I have not your sister's. 34. I have neither yours nor mine, I have your mother's.

OUR HOLIDAY.—III.

GYMNASTIC EXERCISES.-II.

RETURNING to exercises which may be practised without the aid of a companion, we have next to mention a class of light gymnastics known as the

WAND EXERCISES.

These are especially beneficial in inducing flexibility of the shoulder-joint, and form a useful preparation for more arduous movements at a later stage of the learner's progress.

The wand is a smooth stick, one inch in diameter and four feet long, with the ends rounded. For very young persons a length of three feet is sufficient. The following are among the exercises to be practised with this instrument.

1. Grasp the wand with the hands at either end, as seen in Fig. 5; the attitude being perfectly erect, and the chest thrown forward. Now, without bending the elbows, bring the wand down behind you as far as you can, then raise it again to the original position above the head, and repeat these movements twenty times in succession.

The article, the possessive and demonstrative adjective, are repeated before every noun. Mon frère et ma sœur, my brother and mister.

66

6. Go through the same movements as in the last exercise, with the exception that the wand is held forward with the left hand, the charge being made with the left leg.

7. Stand erect and hold the wand out straight before you at arm's length, in a perpendicular position, the left hand resting back to the other foot, five times in succession, without bending on the hip. Now step out with the right foot to the wand, and the knee. Take the wand in the left hand, and advance the left

foot in the same manner.

8. Holding the wand as before, step backward as far as you return to the erect position, and repeat the movement ten times. can with the right foot, in this case bending the left knee; then

The same afterwards with the left foot.

9. Carry the right foot forward to the wand, and then backward as far as you can reach, without stopping. Do this ten times in succession, and then the same with the left foot.

above the other, the arms straight out, step the right foot forward
10. Holding the upper end of the wand in both hands, one
to the wand and the left backward as far as possible.
successive times.
change the position of the feet at a single jump, and do this ten

Now

These examples of the Wand exercises will be sufficient. They may be greatly varied, and two persons, each with a wand, may go through exercises similar in character to the Ring movements described in the previous paper.

THE DUMB BELLS.

We now come to Dumb Bell exercises, which are a well-known and very ancient means of physical culture. The best modern gymnasts, however, have introduced an important change in the practice with dumb bells. Formerly it was the custom to employ the heaviest bells that could be used by the learner, and to put him only through a small variety of motions with them. Now the most approved system is founded on the use of a light dumb bell, with which the pupil is taught to perform a great variety of active and graceful movements, calculated to advance the flexibility as well as the strength of all the muscles of the body. Some gymnasts maintain that the dumb bell should range only between two pounds and five pounds in weight, according to the strength of the learner; but Dr. Dio Lewis, who takes the lead as a recent authority in gymnastics, and who has had a very long and wide experience, is of opinion that bells weighing two pounds are heavy enough for any man, provided he wishes to attain to something more than the strength required for lifting heavy weights. He recommends that, as the dumb bells should be of considerable size, they should be made of wood; and wooden dumb bells only are used in his own gymnasium at Boston, U.S. The handle should be at least half an inch longer than the width of the hand, and of such a size as can be easily grasped, with a slight swell in the middle.

Before describing the light dumb-bell exercises, we will, however, say a few words as to the use of the heavier metal bells, with which some of our readers may be already provided. The object of their use is chiefly to strengthen the muscles of the

A CAVTAT Tand fx the guidance of the

el ng here the head with the right we might let the other bell rest on forme leng bent; change the position Jow with the bells still in these posivi as far as possible, and, when

has reached its limit, sink the body towards the ground. Rise to the perpendicular again, and then stretch back the other eg in the same way. Repeat these movements five times.

8. Standing erect, arms down, carry them to the horizontal position in front; then above the head as seen in Fig. 8. Now down to the horizontal again, and then to the floor, as seen in the dotted lines in the figure. Repeat these movements ten times, and without bending the knees or the elbows.

Here we must leave the dumb bells; but, as in the case of the other exercises, the examples which we have now given will be sufficient to suggest numerous variations and additions to

the learner.

other kind of exercise, which will give mater severe work than any of those to which we

INDIAN CLUBS.

fwood; they should be about eighteen tapering in form, from three to four inches in diameter at the thickest end, and the other forming a convenient handle for the grasp. The weight of the clubs should be just such as will allow the learner to use them with tolerable freedom; for anything like a violent or undue strain upon the muscles is to be avoided in our gymnastic training.

We need not give a detailed list of Indian club exercises. Many of those performed with the dumb bells, etc., can be practised to equal advantage with the clubs, and the learner who has studied the rules and movements we have already given, will know how to proceed with these implements. It will assist him, however, to have before him the two illustrations given on this page. Fig. 7 indicates the proper position of the body from which all the exercises should be commenced, the clubs being used either in perpendicular or horizontal positions, or sometimes in both simultaneously, as in the cut. ther hand of movement which may be practised atam entire freedom with the clubs, the dotted Home their direction. Having reached the back, bring the ade with the clubs hanging downward; then e way to that shown in the illustration, the head, and arching the body as much Smember in the club exercises, as in all others, to bend the knees or the elbows unless movement contemplated renders it abso