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him how the letter f is connected with letters that precede and follow it when it stands in the middle of a word.

The letter z is formed in two ways, as shown in Copy-slip No. 78. The first form consists chiefly of hair-strokes in the shape of the italic printed letter z. It is commenced with a hair-line a little below the line a a, which is carried along in a serpentine form from left to right. The pen is then turned to the left in a loop over the first part of the stroke, and the line is

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the line bb is turned in a larger loop towards the right, and brought downwards towards and as far as the line hh, the letter being finished with a loop, resembling, in a great measure, the loop of the letter j. In Copy-slips Nos. 79 and 80, examples are given of the letter z in combination with other letters.

We will now say a few words in recapitulation of the instruction in the art of writing, and the directions for forming the small letters of the writing alphabet that have been given in this and

enters into the composition of nine letters, namely, a, b, d, i, 1, q, t, u, and w. Of these i and u are formed of the bottomturn, without any modification; while t and 1 consist of the bottom-turn slightly modified.

the preceding lessons on Penmanship. In our first lesson, we endeavoured to explain to students who are seeking to teach themselves how to write, or trying to improve their handwriting, the proper position of the body, the hand, and the pen; and in subsequent lessons we showed how each letter was formed of 2. The "top-turn," which enters into the formation of three one or more simple elementary strokes and their modifications, letters of the alphabet, namely, m, n, and r. This elementary the proportions of each letter being regulated by horizontal stroke, unlike the bottom-turn, does not form a complete letter lines placed at certain distances from each other; thus creating without some other elementary stroke being joined to it. a system which has never before been attempted in teaching 3. The "top-and-bottom-turn," which enters into the comwriting, and which possesses the merit of enabling the self-position of six letters of the alphabet, namely, h, m, n, p, teacher to test by actual measurement how much he knows of the regular proportions of the letters in relation to each other, when he casts aside his leading-strings-as the lines within and on which copies are written may be appropriately termed-and endeavours to write on a blank sheet of paper, with no other guide to the form, connection, and proportion of the letters than that which is furnished by memory, of the copies he has written in lines for practice, and the instructions which have been given in our lessons.

The early copy-slips, numbered from 1 to 6, were traversed by fine diagonal lines running from right to left, in a downward direction. These lines served to show the proper slope or inclination of the letters for writing. They are inclined to the horizontal lines crossing the paper from side to side, at an angle of 60 degrees. This inclination is shown in the annexed diagram by the diagonal line running upwards from the point b, in the left-hand column of letters, from left to right, and crossing the perpendicular line on the right at a point between a and d, in the right-hand column of letters.

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V, and y.

4. The "straight-stroke," which enters into the formation of three letters of the alphabet, namely, h, k, and p.

5. The letter O, which is a complete letter in itself without any addition, and which, as an elementary stroke, enters into the composition of four letters of the alphabet, namely, a, g, d, q; and in a modified form into the formation of four additional letters, namely, c, e, s, and x.

6. The elementary looped form turned at the bottom, which enters into the composition of three letters, namely, g, j, and y; and in a modified form into the composition of z.

7. The elementary stroke, that completes the formation of three letters, namely, b, vV, and W, in combination with the bottom-turn or top-and-bottom-turn.

8. The elementary stroke that is added to the top-turn to form the letter r.

9. The elementary looped form turned at the top, which enters into the composition of the letter f, which is finished below the line bb, with the straight-stroke. In small-hand writing, this form is used instead of the straight down-stroke for those portions of the letters b, h, and 1, which extend above the line a a.

10. The elementary stroke, that may be called a modification of the top-and-bottom-turn, added to the "straight-stroke," to form the letter k.

The following table shows at a glance the formation of all the letters of the alphabet in reference to the numbers attached to the recapitulation of elementary forms that has just been given :

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The horizontal lines that cross the copy-slips from side to side, and which are shown at one view in the accompanying diagram, are designed, as it has been said, to fix the proper proportions of the letters in height and depth. Starting from the centre line cc, the line a a above it, b and the line bb below it, show the common level of the letters that are written within these lines, and do not extend beyond d them either above or below. The letters that are contained within the lines a a, b b, are a, c, e, i, m, n, o, r, s, u, v, w, f X, or exactly half the alphabet. Of the remaining thirteen, six-namely, b, d, h, k, l, t-extend above the upper common level a a; five-namely, g, j, q, y, z-extend below the lower common level bb, while the remaining two, p, f, extend both above a a and below b b. Of the last-named thirteen letters, t is included between the lines dd, bb; b, d, h, k, 1, between the lines ee, bb; q, between the lines a a, gg; g, j, y, z, between the lines a a, hh; f, between the lines kk, gg; and p, between the lines ff, gg. The student is advised to rule a piece of paper in this manner, and write the alphabet upon it. He will then have all the letters together at one view, in their relative proportions. The distances of the lines from the central line cc, on either side of it, are shown by the numbers annexed to the diagram. Those on the left-hand side represent the distances in sixteenths of an inch; those on the right-hand side, in fractional parts of an inch. These are the proper proportions for large-hand writing; but in small-hand, the space between the lines a a, bb is considerably reduced, while the loops and tails of the letters that extend above a a, and below bb, are greatly extended in proportion, as will be seen from our future copy-slips in small-hand.

The width of the letters contained within the lines a a, b b, and indeed the width of all letters used in large text, except i, m, and w, should be exactly one-half of that part of the diagonal line that is intercepted between them. In the annexed diagram, the proper width of a letter in large-hand is shown by the line intercepted between a in the left-hand column of letters, and o, the point in which the line a a is crossed by the diagonal. It measures exactly seven-twenty-fourths of an inch in width. The elementary forms of which the small letters of the writing alphabet are composed, in large-hand writing, are ten in number, namely:

1. The "bottom-turn," which in its simple or modified form

5 j 5.1 k 51

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6

DERIVATION: PREFIXES (continued). Meter, metro, with the signification of "mother," of Greek origin (unTnp, pronounced meet-ear, a mother), enters as the first two syllables into the word metropolis (oxis, pronounced pol'-is, a city), a mother city, the capital of a country, the chief city of a province.

"By consent of all churches, the precedency in each province was assigned to the bishop of the metropolis, who was called the first bishop, the metropolitan.”—Barrow.

Micro, of Greek origin (uikpos, pronounced mi-kros, little), is seen in microcosm (Greek, kooμos, pronounced kos-mos, the world), that is, a little world.

"Because in the little frame of man's body there is a representation of the universal, and (by allusion) a kind of participation of all the parts there, therefore was man called microcosmos, or the little world." -Raleigh, "History of the World."

Micro appears also in microscope (Greek, σкожew, pronounced skop'-e-o, I look at, see).

"The works of art do not bear a nice microscopical inspection; but the more helps are used, and the more nicely you pry into natural productions, the more do you discover of the fine mechanism of nature."-Berkeley, "Siris.”

Mid, of Saxon origin (compare middle), halfway, makes a part of several English words, as midland, midnight, midday, midship, midsummer; the meaning of which is very plain. Midriff (rif, rib, Saxon, division) is the diaphragm, the skin or membrane which separates the heart and lungs from the lower belly.

Mid, though belonging to the Saxon, is an Indo-Germanic word. It appears in the Greek, in μeσos (mes-os), middle; μera (met-ta), in the midst of, among; in the Latin, in medius, middle; medium, the middle, the half, the means, or medium; in the German mitte, mit, with; in the Sanscrit, madhya. The term midwife is given, by Richardson, as "med-wife, a woman hired for meed or reward." But how does the meed distinguish the midwife? Are not all servants hired for meed or reward? And do not all professions receive a meed or reward? The proper meaning of mid-wife is evidently, from our preceding remarks, medium-wife, a woman who, from having been married herself, which the word wife denotes, becomes useful as a medium or means of assisting other married women at child

birth.

"Nor need I claim the Muses' midwifry,

To bring to light so worthless poetry."-Bp. Hall.

Mille, of Latin origin (mille, a thousand), appears in millennium and its derivations. Millennium (Latin, annus, a year) properly signifies a period of a thousand years.

"When at your second coming you appear,
(For I foretell the millenary year)

The sharpened share shall vex the soil no more,
But Earth unbidden shall produce her store."
Dryden, "Palamon and Arcite."

Mis, of Saxon origin, found in the verb to miss, and in the adverb amiss, denoting something wrong, forms a prefix to many words, as misallied, misapply, misbecome, misconceive, misjudge, mislike, misrepresent. Mischief (French, achever, to accomplish) is a bad or wicked deed; the second syllable has nothing to do with our word chief, that is, head. What we now call mis'chie-vous, was formerly pronounced according to the vulgar error mis-chie'-vous.

"And every one threw forth reproaches rife,
Of his mischievous deedes, and sayd that hee
Was the disturber of all civill life,

The enemy of peace, and author of all strife."
Spenser, "Faerie Queene."

Misgive is used in the derivative sense of yielding, weakly yielding, and as yielding weakly, so improperly, the notion of impropriety lying in the mis.

"Great joy he promised to his thoughts, and new
Solace in her return, so long delayed;
Yet oft his heart, divine of something ill,
Misgave him."

Milton, "Paradise Lost."

Mod, of Latin origin (modus, manner, limit), appears in modify (Latin, facio, I make), to state with some restriction or qualification; to alter slightly; also in modest, moderate, commodious, commodity, etc.

Molli, of Latin origin (mollis, soft), appears in mollify, to make soft; to appease, render gentle; mollifier, mollification, mollifiable, etc.

"While the vocal flute,

Or numbered verse, by female voice endeared,

Crowns his delight and mollifies the scene."-Shenstone. Mono, mon, of Greek origin (uovos, pronounced mon'-os, alone), gives rise to monachos, a monk, one who lives alone; monachism, the society of monks; monas, a monad, a single object, a unit; monarch (Greek, apyn, pronounced ar'-ke, government), one who rules alone; monogamy (Greek, yaμos, pronounced gam'-os, marriage): monopolise (Greek, wλea, pronounced po'-le-o, I sell), to have the sole power of selling; monotheism (Greek, Oeos, pronounced the'-os, God), the belief in one God; monosyllable, a word of one syllable.

"

Conjunction, preposition, adverb join

To stamp new vigour on the nervous line;
In monosyllables his thunders roll,

He, she, it, and we, ye, they, fright the soul."
Churchill," Rosciad."

mortgager may re-enter on the estate granted in pledge.”—Blackstone, "Commentaries." Mortmain (Latin, mortuâ manu, in a dead hand) is explained thus:

"All purchases made by corporate bodies were said to be purchases in mortmain; for this reason, those purchases were usually made by ecclesiastical bodies, the members of which being professed (in orders), were reckoned dead persons in law; land, therefore, holden by them might, with great propriety, be said to be held in mortuá manu.— Blackstone,

"Commentaries."

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Neo, of Greek origin (veos, pronounced ne'-os, new), doubtless the same as our new, which thus appears to be Indo-Germanic. Neo forms the first syllable in neology, or new-science, new-doctrine-terms that might be used as fittingly as the Greek word neology. Neo is found also in neophyte (Greek, putos, pronounced fu'-tos, born), a new-born person, a recent convert.

Non, of Latin origin, not, stands before words of historical importance, as, non-conformist, non-juror.

"By that Act (the Five Mile Act), passed in the Parliament held at Oxford, October 9, 1665, and entitled, An Act for restraining Nonconformists (to the Established Church) from inhabiting Corporations,' the non-conforming ministers were prohibited, upon a penalty of forty pounds for every offence, to come, unless only in passing upon the road, within five miles of any city, corporation, etc."-Locke. Non-juror is a term usually applied to those persons who refused to take the oaths of allegiance to William III. at the Revolution. "The nonjuring prelates were Sancroft, Turner, Lake, Ken, White, Lloyd, Thomas, and Frampton."-Sm.llett, "History of England.”

Ob, of Latin origin (as a preposition, on account of), has the general meaning of towards, and hence at, near, and varies with the word with which it is connected, the meaning of which it sometimes merely strengthens. In object' (Latin, jacio, I throw), to throw before or against, it conveys the idea of obstruction, an idea which it expresses more fully in obstruction (Latin, struo, I build), which, according to its constituents, signifies a building or blocking up. In obliterate (Latin, litura, an erasure), to blot out, it has an augmentive force. Passing into the first letter of its principal, ob becomes oc, as in occasion (Latin, cado, I fall), a suitable fall, a fall before you so as to suit your purpose, something seasonable and convenient, by which you may profit. Ob passes also into of, as in offer (Latin, fero, I bear). This of must not be confounded with of or off signifying from, and found in off-scouring and offspring.

"Our prayer hath

No power to pass; and thou hast made us fall, As refuse and off-scouring to them all."-Donne. "Whence it follows that these were nations not descending from us, but born with us; not our off-spring, but our brethren."-South.

Octo, also octa, of Latin origin (octo, eight), appears in octagon, eight-angled; octosyllable, of eight syllables; octoteuch (Greek, TεUXη, pronounced tu'-ke, a fold or volume), the first eight books of the Old Testament.

LESSONS IN DRAWING.-XI.

No one, we presume, will question our statement when we say, that in giving these instructions in drawing, there are two great and important considerations to fulfil, both of which are indispensable and cannot be treated independently of each other: the one is to lay down data or rules for practical use, the other is to direct the pupil in what way he may ascertain for himself the Mort, of Latin origin (mors, death, genitive mortis), forms the principles upon which rules are founded, as well as to guide him basis of mortal and immortal. Mortgage is a dead gage or in his method of observation. The root of all knowledge of any pledge; that is to say, something so pledged, as what are called real value, is found in the capability of giving a satisfactory deeds or writings, so that it cannot be used for raising money. answer to the simple questions, why and wherefore. One man, “Mortuum vadium, a dead pledge, mortgage, is when a man borrows who takes for granted all facts as they are given to him, may of another a specific sum,-e.g., £200, and grants him an estate in fee, gain a great deal of information upon many subjects; another, on condition that if he, the mortgager, shall repay the mortgagee the who stops to inquire into the truth or foundation of those facts said sum of £200 on a certain day mentioned in the deed, then the—that is, to satisfy himself thoroughly respecting the why and

the wherefore-will be the better educated man of the two, and his information, though not so extensive as the other, will be found in every way to be more serviceable to himself and to those who employ him. The latter can boast of possessing a few coins of the true metal; the larger stock of the former is merely electro-plate. After the above remarks, we hope our pupils will be anxious to accompany us into a little inquiry respecting the laws which regulate the disposition of shadows as they occur under various circumstances. The extent of the shadow is ruled by the position of the source of light. On any

Figs. 76, 77, and 78 are intended to show the position of the shadow of an object in three cases. In Fig. 76, the sun is parallel with our position, or with the picture plane, and is on our right hand, casting the shadow of the post at ab, which is parallel with the horizontal line and picture plane. In Fig. 77, when the sun is in front of the picture, or behind us, the shadow is cast in a retiring position. In Fig. 78, when the sun is behind the picture or before us, the shadow is cast in advance of the object, or, in other words, approaches We intend to give only a single geometrical example,

us.

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day at noon, when the sun is high in the heavens, the shadows of our own figures are shorter than in the morning or evening, when the sun is lower: this, then, suggests the consideration, how are we to regulate or decide upon the extent of the shadow of an object in a picture according to the sun's inclination. This may be said to be the statement of the question relating to all shadows under whatever conditions they may be found. We propose now to take it up with reference to a few cases only, as it will be more thoroughly answered in the lessons on Geometrical Perspective. Sometimes the position of the sun may be

Fig. 78.

and that a very simple one, of the first of these positions, and leave the pupil at present to take for granted much that might be said, not only on this, but on the others also, as they belong more especially to geometrical perspective. The position we have chosen is the parallel position, when the sun's rays are in the picture. Let A, B (Fig. 79) represent two walls, forming a right angle, one of which, A, is parallel to the picture plane, and the other, B, at a right angle, or perpendicular with the picture plane; there is also a doorway in the wall B. Let the sun's rays be supposed to have an inclination of 45°. The

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behind us, at other times before us, and again it may be, as it is technically termed, " in the picture;" that is, the sun is either on our right hand or on our left, meaning by that neither before us, nor behind us: consequently the rays are parallel with the picture. Sometimes the source of light is a lamp or candle, and although the rules for constructing the shadows under thieht are very much the same as those we employ for ng from the effects of sunlight, yet there is this once: the sun's rays are always considered count of its remote distance from the earth, om a lamp or candle radiates above, below, and consequently the rays are not parallel.

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angle a b c (450) may be made anywhere on the ground line, as it is only so placed for the purpose of drawing the dotted lines, d e, f g, etc., parallel to a b, to ensure the given inclination of the sun's rays, by which the extent of the shadows are deter mined. Our purpose then in introducing this problem is to prove that the edges of the shadows of objects in a horizontal position have the same vanishing point as the lines of the object itself have when in parallel perspective. It will be seen that the shadow, g h, of the upper edge of the wall, B, as well as the wall itself, are directed towards the point of sight, also the shadow of the top of the doorway, and ei, of the end of the wall A, are subject to the same rule. We should like to go

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