ページの画像
PDF
ePub

Ortho, of Greek origin (Greek, opeos, pronounced orthos, straight, right), as in orthodoxy, right opinion; orthogonal, rightangled; orthopedic, right-footed, etc.

"Athanasius is commonly accounted the very rule of orthodoxality in this point."-Cudworth, "Intellectual System."

This prefix forms part also of orthography (Greek, ypaøn, pronounced graf'-fe, writing), right writing, that is, in the spelling of words; as orthoepy (Greek, eños, pronounced ep'-os, a word) is right pronunciation. Over, of Saxon origin, as in overarch, overbalance, overbear, overcharge, overboard, over-boil, over-bounteous, frequently denoting too much, as over-careful, that is, careful to excess. Overcome has two significations, to conquer, and to come over or upon.

"He found the means to subdue both the one and the other, compelling as well the overcomers as the overcome to be his tributaries."— Brende, "Quintus Curtius."

"Mac. Can such things be

And overcome us like a summer's cloud, Without our special wonder ?"-Shakespeare. Over when employed for above, as "over two hundred," is to be avoided as an Americanism. To overtake is to come up with in walking or running.

"And had he not in his extremest need

Been helped through the swiftness of his steed,
He had him overtaken in his flight."-Spenser.

In the passive the verb overtake seems to denote the being suddenly surprised into an action; surprise is from the French surprendre (consisting of sur, above or over, and prendre, to take), whence surprise is the same as overtake in both derivation and meaning.

"Brethren, if a man be overtaken in a fault."—Gal. vi. 1.

It is not difficult to see how to overtake may mean to get over, overcome, surprise, but how it means to come up with is less easy to conceive. The notion of over, or of superiority may, however, lie in the act by which you succeed in coming up to the person you wish to overtake; thus, by walking more quickly than he, you overtake your friend, you take a step over his, and get beyond him.

Out, of Saxon origin, beyond a certain limit, is a very common prefix, as in outbid, outdo, outface, outlaw, outlive, outstrip, etc. Outrage has nothing to do with out. Outrage comes from the medieval Latin word ultragium, through the French oultraige, outrage. Ultragium, from ultra, beyond, denoted a surplusage paid to the lord by his subject on failure of paying his dues in proper time, whence outrage came to signify something in excess and to have an offensive meaning.

Pan, of Greek origin (was, pas, m.; яaσa, pa'-sa f.; wav, pan, n., all), is found in panacea (Greek, aкeoμаι, pronounced a-ke'-o-mi, I heal), all-heal, a universal remedy; in pancreas (Greek, kpeas, pronounced kre'-as, flesh), all flesh-that is, the sweetbread; and in pandects (Greek, dexoμai, pronounced dek'-o-mi, I receive), a common title of the Greek miscellanies. The term is known

in history in its application to a digest of the civil law published by the Emperor Justinian. Again, pan occurs in pantheism (Greek, Beos, pronounced the'-os, God), all-goodness-that is, the system which regards God and the universe as the same. Pan forms the first part of pantomime (Greek μuos, pronounced mimos, a mimic; and the word mimic is from mimos), allmimicry, because the performance consisted solely of imitation. "The pantomimes who maintained their reputation from the age of Augustus to the sixth century, expressed, without the use of words, the various fables of the gods and heroes of antiquity; and the perfection of their art, which sometimes disarmed the gravity of the philosopher, always excited the applause and wonder of the people."Gibbon, "Roman Empire."

Para, of Greek origin (rapa, pronounced par-ra, by the side of, as in parallels, i.e., parallel lines), has in English various acceptations. In parable (Greek, Baλλw, pronounced bal'-lo, I throw), something put by the side of another thing, a comparison, a similitude. In Scripture, the parables of the Old Testament are short, pithy, and weighty sayings; the parables of the New Testament are short tales, setting forth religious truth under similitudes; the former are apothegms; the latter allegories. Para appears in paraclete (Greek, kale, pronounced kal'-ine, to call), the Advocate or Comforter (John xiv. 16).

Paradise is a Persian word, denoting a park, and has no connection with the Greek para; in Hebrew, pardes, a garden. Par, of Latin origin (pars, partis, a part), appears in participate (Latin, capio, I take)—that is, to partake. This word partake is a hybrid, being formed of an English and a Latin word; it is therefore a cross in the breed between Latin and English. Pent, or penta, of Greek origin (TEVTE, pronounced pen'-te, five), the name given to what are called "the five books of Moses "as in pentagon, a figure having five sides; pentateuch (fivefold), namely, Genesis, Exodus, Leviticus, Numbers, and Deuteronomy. It is found in perambulate (Latin, ambulo, I walk), to walk Per, of Latin origin, through, by; as, peradventure, by chance. through, over.

"The ancients used to crown virgins with the flowers of this plant (milkwort) when they perambulated the fields, to implore fertility thereto."-Miller, "Gardener's Dictionary."

The per passes into pol in pollute (Latin, polluo, per, and lutum, mud). Pol is found also in pollicitation, a promising, from the Latin polliceor, I promise.

Peri, of Greek origin (rept, pronounced per'-re), meaning around; as, periphery (Greek, pepw, fer'-ro, I bear), a circumference; also in periphrasis (Greek, opaois, fra'-sis, a phrase, a speech), a circumlocution, or roundabout mode of utterance; as, the loss of life, for death.

Phil and philo, of Greek origin (pixos, fil-los, a lover), as in philologer, a lover of science (particularly the science of language); philosopher (Greek, σopia, sof-i-a, wisdom), a lover of wisdom; philomel (Greek, μeλos, mel'-los, a song), applied to man), the love of mankind. the nightingale; philanthropy (Greek, avoрwños, an-thro'-pos, ɑ

Phys, of Greek origin (Greek, puois, fu'-sis, nature), physic, and physician, originally meant natural philosophy and a natural philosopher; but derivatively, the words came to refer to a knowledge of such natural objects as were held to conduce to the art of healing. Physics, plural, still means Natural Philosophy; and the French word physicien means a Natural Philosopher, or one acquainted with the laws of nature.

Physiognomy consists of the Greek words puois, fu'-sis, nature, and yiyon, gi-no'-sko, I know; and so properly denotes a knowledge of nature by outward appearances; but, as employed, the word signifies a knowledge of a man's character, as gained from his countenance. Physiology is the science of nature, but in a particular way; a science, that is, of the structure and laws of the human frame in particular, and of animal organisation in general.

"I find that the most eminent and original physiologist of the present age (M. Cuvier) has been led, by his enlightened researches concerning the laws of the animal economy, into a train of thinking strikingly similar."-Dugald Stewart, "Philosophy of the Mind."

Pleni, of Latin origin (plenus, full; hence plenty), is found in plenipotentiary (Latin, potens, powerful), one who has been entrusted with full power or authority.

"Let the plenipotentiary sophisters of England settle with the diplo

matic sophisters of France in what manner right is to be corrected by an infusion of wrong, and how truth may be rendered more true by a due intermixture of falsehood."-Burke.

The Greek word πλeos (ple'-os) is the same as the Latin plenas, found in our "plenty." This word supplies the first syllable in pleonasm, a fulness of expression so as to become excessive.

"It is a pleonasm, a figure used in Scripture, by a multiplicity of expressions, to signify some one notable thing."-South.

Poly, of Greek origin (Toλus, pol'-use, many, much), appears its many flowers; and in polygamy (Greek, yauos [gam'-os], in polyanthus (Greek, aveos, an'-thos, a flower), so called from marriage), having many wives.

"Polygamy was not commonly tolerated in Greece, for marriage was thought to be a conjunction of one man with one woman."-Potter, "Antiquities of Greece."

Poly is also the first syllable of polyglot (Greek, yλwTTα, gloat'-ta, a tongue), one who knows many languages; also a book written in many languages, as the "Polyglot Bible."

Post, of Latin origin, after, afterwards, appears in postdate, to date after the time of writing, at some later time; in postpone (Latin, pono, I place), to put off; and in postscript (Latin, scriptum, a writing), something added to a letter.

Postumous, erroneously spelt posthumous, from the Latin postumus, the same as postremus (from post, after), signifies late, very late, the latest, the last. This word is applied to a child born after the father's death, or a book published after the author's death.

We

Sometimes the word is spelt posthume, for postume. have here an instance of the effect on spelling of a supposed etymology. Postume was thought to be composed of post, after, and humus, the ground, and hence the word was written posthume. It is, however, the superlative of the Latin posterus, and is used in the Latin language with the same applications as in English. Richardson is wrong in the etymology which he gives of this word.

Pre, of Latin origin, before, as in precaution (from Latin, cavere, to beware), forethought.

[blocks in formation]

LESSONS IN GEOGRAPHY.—XI.

IN our last lesson it was stated that it is generally believed by geographers in the present day that the southern pole of the axis on which the earth revolves once in the course of every twenty-four hours, is situated in the midst of a vast continent to which access is forbidden by the masses of ice that fringe its coasts, and the steep rampart of volcanic mountains that rises abruptly from the very edge of its shore. The northern pole of the earth's axis, on the contrary, is supposed to be in the midst of an open ocean, navigable by vessels, if a ready and practicable means of entrance to its waters could be found through the ice-fields that encircle it. Possibly we are on the eve of solving the problem, and discovering with certainty what may be the condition of the regions that lie around the North Pole, for an expedition thither is preparing under the auspices of the French Government, which will in all probability set out for its destination in 1869, under the command of its originator, M. Gustave Lambert. It is M. Lambert's intention to avoid the routes taken by former explorers, and to push his way to the north through Behring Strait.

To tell the story of Arctic explorations since Sir John Franklin left England on his third expedition of discovery to the north in 1844, to die three years after on the dreary wastes of King William Land, hard by Point Victory-an apt name for the last resting-place of a man to whom belongs the merit and honour of having discovered the "north-west passage from England to the shores of Asia by sea-" barren honour" as it is and must be to all save himself and his companions, as its discovery can never be attended with results useful to commercewould occupy too much space. It will, therefore, suffice to say that of late years the most active and successful explorers of the regions that lie north of the line of waters that stretch from Baffin Bay on the east to Banks Strait on the west, are Dr. Elisha Kent Kane and Dr. Isaac J. Hayes. Both of these travellers are Americans, and both have received a gold medal from the Royal Geographical Society as an acknowledgment of the eminent services rendered to geography by their discoveries -the former having received the Founder's Gold Medal in 1856, for his services in connection with the American expeditions sent out in search of Franklin in 1850 and 1853, and the latter the Patron's Gold Medal in 1867, for his memorable expedition in 1860-61, towards the supposed open polar sea, in which he attained lat. 81° 35' in Smith Sound, a more northern point of land than has been reached by any previous navigator. Coming southward from Smith Sound, up which Dr. Hayes penetrated to within 9° 25', or somewhat less than 600 miles of the North Pole, we have Greenland or Danish America on our right, which was visited by Mr. Edward Whymper, a wellknown Alpine explorer, in 1867. Owing to an epidemic, which had carried off about ten per cent. of the population, this

explorer was not successful in penetrating as far into the interior as he intended, and another journey will be necessary to ascertain from what sources sustenance is derived by the herds of deer that come from the interior of the country to the coasts at certain periods, and after a short stay return once more to their yet undiscovered haunts. In Alaska Mr. Frederick Whymper, an artist attached to the late Russo-American Telegraph Expedition, has been more successful, having advanced more than 1,200 miles into the heart of the country along the course of the Kwichpac or Youcon River, a magnificent stream that discharges its waters into the ocean nearly opposite the Isle of St. Lawrence, that lies like a breakwater across the entrance to Behring Strait, between the opposing coasts of Asia and America.

Mr. Frederick Whymper's journey into the interior of Alaska was made in 1866-7. He travelled by sledge from Norton Sound, a deep inlet to the south-east of Behring Strait, to the banks of the Youkon River, spending the winter months at Nulato, the last of the trading ports that the Russians have established along the course of the river and the interior of the country. In the spring he re-commenced his journey, and made his way up the stream in a boat, consisting of a framework covered with skins, to a point about 600 miles distant from Nulato, where the Porcupine River enters the Youkon. He then turned, and descended the course of the river to the sea. The Youkon is navigable for 1,800 miles from its embouchure during the summer months, but for at least eight months of the year it is frozen over. The natives on the coast are Esquimaux, while in the interior, and on the banks of the river, parties of Indians are occasionally met with. Public attention has recently been directed to Alaska, formerly Russian America, on account of its sale by the Russian government to the United States in 1867, for the sum of 7,000,000 dollars, or about £1,400,000. Some hundreds of miles lower down the west continent of North America, a little to the north of the boundary line between the British dominions and the United States, lies a broad belt of forest land and fertile pasture ground, watered by the head-streams of the Saskatchewan and the Red River, which stretches from the western confines of the new dominion of Canada to the Rocky Mountains. This region was visited by Viscount Milton and Dr. Cheadle in 1861-63; the expedition being "undertaken with the design of discovering the most direct route through British territory to the gold regions of Cariboo (in British Columbia), and exploring the unknown country on the western flank of the Rocky Mountains, in the neighbourhood of the sources of the north branch of the Thompson River." This expedition has furnished us with much valuable information about a country that has hitherto been entirely abandoned to Indians and trappers, but which contains upwards of 65,000 square miles of land, of unsurpassed fertility, abounding in mineral wealth, and which is destined to become, at no very distant period perhaps, one of the principal centres of British colonisation, affording the true north-west passage by land from Europe, through our colonies of Canada and British Columbia, to the splendid harbours of Esquimault and the great coal-fields of Vancouver Island, which offer every advantage for the protection and supply of a merchant fleet trading thence to India, China, and Japan. Our illustration will give the reader some idea of the beauty and grandeur of the scenery on the eastern slope of the Rocky Mountains. It is a view of the valley near Jasper House, or Fort Assiniboine, a little trading station on the bank of the Athabasca or Elk River, which emerges from the heart of the Rocky Mountains through a narrow gorge near this point, and expands into a lake about three or four miles long, the shores of which are beautifully wooded with clumps and clusters of dark-green pines, and covered with luxuriant verdure. In the background, on the right of the picture, is an ice-capped conical mountain called the Priest's Rock, which forms a prominent feature in the landscape, while on the left is seen the flattened top and profile of a steep ascent rising almost perpendicularly from the plains below, called the Roche à Myette.

Passing still southwards through the United States-the western parts of which are now being opened up by strong and resolute backwoodsmen from the outlying districts of the Central

This illustration is taken, by permission of the authors, from the "North-West Passage by Land," by Lord Milton, M.P., and Dr. Cheadle. London: Cassell, Petter, and Galpin.

States, the pioneers of advancing civilisation-and through Mexico -the most ill-conditioned country under the sun, as far as its people are concerned, yet in itself fair, rich, and fruitful, and worthy of being the home of an energetic and industrious race, instead of a paradise of thieves and cut-throats-we come to Central America, which deserves a passing mention here for the explorations of Captain, now Admiral, Bedford Pim and others, who are seeking to turn the stream of emigration setting steadily out from the southern parts of the United States into British Honduras, a country especially adapted for the production of cotton, sugar, and indigo; and the attempts that have been made to bring about the cutting of a ship canal across the narrow slip of land that separates Lake Nicaragua from the waters of the Pacific, to form with the lake itself and the river St. Juan a water-way through the isthmus for ships trading from Europe and the eastern coasts of America to India, China, Japan, and the shores and thousand islands of the vast Pacific. Southward yet a little further, and we come to South America,

the Tapajos River, another vast tributary of that river, which drains the central and northern part of the province of Matto Grosso.

Of the semi-organised republics of South America, which have scarcely recovered the effects of the revolution which separated them from Spain in the first quarter of the present century, and which (especially La Plata, or the States of the Argentine Confederation) have much to do in eradicating the sources of intestine discord before they can attain the condition of prosperous, peace-loving countries, there is little or nothing new to say; and turning eastward across the Atlantic we reach the last of the six great divisions of the world, the continent of Africa, in which it is necessary to trace the history of geographical discovery since 1820.

After the travels of Sporrman, Shaw, Norden, Bruce, Le Vaillant, Mungo Park, and Horneman, which threw a flood of light upon the geography of Africa in the last century, we owe much to Adams, Tuckey, Bowditch, Mollien, Major Laing,

[graphic][merged small]

a continent of whose central regions little more is known with | any degree of certainty than has been yet learnt of the unexplored heart of Africa. But even here travellers have been busy in collecting facts to add to our limited knowledge of these parts of the world's surface, for Mr. Henry W. Bates, the present assistant secretary of the Royal Geographical Society, explored the countries on either bank of the mighty river Amazons between the years 1848 and 1859, giving us a series of vivid and animated descriptions of the habits of animals, sketches of Brazilian and Indian life, and aspects of nature under the equator, during eleven years of travel, in his work entitled "The Naturalist on the River Amazons." Mr. Bates's researches have been ably supplemented by Mr. W. Chandless, who received the Patron's Gold Medal in 1866 for his exploration of the river Purus, one of the southern affluents of the Amazons, which he ascended for a distance of 1,800 miles, making, by observations as he proceeded, an accurate map of the windings of the river. Previous to this journey of discovery Mr. Chandless had travelled through South America from the head-streams of the Paraguaya river which rises in the Brazilian province of Matto Grosso, and joins the Parana near the town of Corrientes, in the Argentine State of that name-to the mouth of the Amazons, down

and Messrs. Ritchie and Lyon in the present century. The labours of Messrs. Denham and Clapperton, and Dr. Oudney, in exploring the interior of this continent in 1822, added considerably to our knowledge of North-Central Africa. When we look upon a modern map of Africa, all the geographical positions which are laid down in Bornou, round Lake Tchad, the lake itself, the direction of the course of rivers in this region, the rectification of the course of the Niger, and other topographical details, such as the position of mountains, etc., are due to the last-mentioned travellers. Clapperton closed his successful career by reaching Sockatoo from the Gulf of Benin, and died in 1826, leaving his labours unfinished, after having accomplished the remarkable journey from Tripoli to Benin, and enriched geography with a vast collection of new and accurate discoveries. Timbuctoo, that singular object of African travellers, was reached by Major Laing in the same year, but at a later period, when he also paid the debt of nature. In 1830, Richard and John Lander undertook to resolve the problem of the direction of the Niger from the point to which it had been traced by Park and Clapperton. They proposed to descend the river along its course from Boussa, where it had so far been traced, and to follow its course to the Atlantic Ocean, in order to

ascertain its embouchure. After encountering many and great dangers, they reached the sea by the central or principal branch of the Niger, which is the river called Nun, and which disembogues itself into the Atlantic Ocean, between the Bight of Benin and the Bight of Biafra. The source of this river, as determined by Laing, is at the foot of Mount Loma, in the Kong Mountains. From this point to Timbuctoo its course was known; but the brothers Lander made it known from Boussa to the ocean, and so solved a part of the geographical problem which had so long existed without a satisfactory solution.

LESSONS IN ARITHMETIC.-XXI.

CONCRETE OR COMMERCIAL ARITHMETIC.

1. WE have hitherto been concerned with what are called abstract numbers-that is to say, numbers abstracted from their connection with any special thing, object, or magnitude; and we have established all the principles connected with them which are necessary to be known by the student of elementary arithmetic. We now proceed to apply these principles to concrete numbers that is to say, to numbers which indicate some actual magnitude, object, or thing-as, for instance, time, money, length, etc. Theoretically, we are already in possession of principles which enable us to perform any calculation with reference to any concrete number. Take length, for instance. Suppose that we fix upon a certain length, and call it a mile. By means of this mile we could measure any other length whatever. For by fractions or decimals we could express any part or parts of a mile whatsoever; we could add, subtract, multiply, or divide any number of miles or parts of a mile, etc. etc. But it is manifest that, although this could be done, great inconvenience would arise from the cumbrous nature of the operations. In treating, for instance, of fractional parts of a mile, it would be often very difficult to realise the length indicated. What idea would most people have of of a mile? But if they were told that this length is very nearly indeed equal to a foot, they would form a very clear conception of the length. Hence, in measuring all magnitudes, the method of subdivision has been employed. Certain magnitudes have been fixed upon and named, and then these again divided and subdivided, and names given to the divisions, as convenience best suggested.

Quantities expressed in this way by means of different subdivisions are called compound quantities. Thus, a sum of money, expressed in pounds, shillings, and pence, is a compound quantity. The names of the various subdivisions are generally called denominations.

2. Accurate Standard or Unit.

On proceeding to measure any magnitude or quantity, it is evident that it is of the utmost importance to come to an exact definition of some one fixed magnitude of the same kind, with which we may compare all such magnitudes. Such a fixed magnitude is called a standard. When this has been done, then the standard can be subdivided, or multiples of it can be taken, as we please, and names given to the subdivisions or multiples.

The subdivisions which are employed in England in the coinage and weights and measures are, as might be expected, not founded upon one carefully prepared and philosophical system, but have gradually grown up during long centuries, having often been suggested by special convenience or local usage. The subject has of late received much attention, and the possibility and advantage of establishing a uniform decimal system of coinage, weights, and measures, have been discussed with considerable warmth.

On July 29th, 1864, an Act of Parliament was passed to render permissive the use of a decimal system of weights and measures called the "Metric System." Contracts and transactions, therefore, based on this system are now legal. We shall, however, return to this subject hereafter.

We proceed now to treat of the subdivisions of various concrete quantities which are now generally in use.

MEASURES OF TIME.

3. The time of the revolution of the earth in its orbit can be hown by the calculations of astronomical science to be an rying quantity, or, at any rate, to be subject to no appreci

able variation for an immense number of centuries. Now, it is found that this time is 365 24224 (i.e., about 365-25, or 3651) mean solar days, a solar day being the interval which elapses between noon and noon-that is, between the times when the sun is successively highest in the heavens.*

The year is made to consist of 365 days-i.e., about of a day less than the time of the revolution of the earth in its orbit. To every fourth year (Bissextile or leap year, as it is called) one day is added, and thus at the end of every four years the earth is again very nearly in the same part of its orbit as it was at the beginning of them. We say very nearly, because the earth actually revolves round the sun in 365-24224 days, which is less than 365 days by 00776 of a day. This error in excess amounts to a day in about 128 years-i.e., to very nearly 3 days in 4 centuries. Hence, to make our reckoning still more accurate, we omit 3 days in 4 centuries; and this is done by making the year which completes every century not a leap year, except such centuries as are divisible by 4. Thus A.D. 1700, 1800, and 1900 are not leap years, but A.D. 2000-i.e., the year completing the twentieth century-is a leap year.

The establishment of the leap year is due to Julius Caesar; that of the omission of the leap year three times in 400 years to Pope Gregory XIII., who, in the year A.D. 1582, when the error amounted to ten days, caused the ten days which followed October 4th to be omitted in the reckoning. October 5th con

sequently was called October 15th.

This latter system, the New Style, as it is called, was not adopted in England until A.D. 1752, when the difference between this and the old mode of reckoning amounted to about eleven days. The difference between the Old and New Style amounts Christmas Day and Lady Day, for instance-Old Style, would at present to about twelve days. Thus any fixed dayoccur twelve days later than our present Christmas and Lady Day. Russia is now the only country in Europe which retains the Old Style.

Having, then, thus established a fixed invariable standard whereby to measure time, we are enabled to make any further

subdivisions for convenience.

[merged small][merged small][merged small][merged small][merged small][merged small][merged small][merged small][ocr errors][merged small][merged small][ocr errors][merged small][merged small][merged small][ocr errors][ocr errors][merged small]

Any number of seconds are written either thus-35′′, 23", or 35 sec., 23 sec.

It is better, however, in indicating time, to use the abbreviations sec. and min. for seconds and minutes, inasmuch as the same names and the marks' and" are used for certain divisions of the circle (Art. 18).

The Calendar months into which the year is divided do not each contain the same number of days. The number in each month, however, may be remembered by the following lines:

Thirty days has September,
April, June, and November;
February twenty-eight alone-
All the rest have thirty-one;

But leap year comes one year in four,
And February then has one day more.

MEASURES OF LENGTH.

4. Having determined, as above explained, an exact measure of time, we are enabled, curious as it may appear, to deduce from it a fixed and invariable measure of length. We might, of course, take any object a piece of metal, say-and, giving to its length a particular name, thus obtain a means of measuring all other magnitudes. But this object, whatever it might be, and however carefully preserved, would be liable to be lost, to alteration from decay, variation of temperature, etc. It is therefore very desirable to have some invariable and independent

times in the year rather longer, and at others rather shorter, than its A solar day is not actually of unvarying duration, but is at some average length. It is this average length of the solar day which is called the mean solar day, and is divided into 24 hours.

means to which we can always have recourse, to give us an exactly accurate standard of length with which to compare all other lengths.

Now, the interval of time called a second being invariable, it is found that a pendulum which, in the latitude of Greenwich, under certain conditions, oscillates in one second, is of a certain length. It is further proved, from mechanical and mathematical principles, that this length must always be exactly the same whenever the experiment is tried under exactly the same conditions. This accurate and scientific method, however, as might be expected, was not the way in which a measure of length was first determined. A certain measure called a yard having been established, and this yard divided into 36 equal parts, called inches, it was found that the length of the pendulum oscillating in one second of time at Greenwich contained 39-1393 such inches. We thus see that we have a means of recovering and correcting, at any time, the measure of the yard. The actual standard yard was fixed, by Act of Parliament passed 1835, to be "the straight line or distance between the centre of the two points in the gold studs in the straight brass rod now in the custody of the Clerk of the House of Commons, whereon the words 'Standard Yard, 1760,' are engraved." The Act further states that in the latitude of London the pendulum vibrating seconds of mean time in vacuo at the level of the sea is 39 1393 inches.

This standard, however, was, in fact, destroyed in 1834, at the fire of the House of Commons, before the Act passed. The Astronomical Society, however, had carefully prepared a standard yard, which is calculated to differ from the old one by not more thanth of an inch.

OUR HOLIDAY.

CRICKET.-I.

THE early days of spring bring with them the return of the cricketing season, and by many persons they are more gladly welcomed on that account, than for all the other charms which accompany them. Cricket is, undoubtedly, the national pastime of England. Every rural village has its players; towns and counties all over the kingdom are pitted against each other in rivalry for the palm of superiority in the game. Commencing in school-days, the pastime is often carried on as the chosen recreation of mature years; and with real benefit to him who practises it. For cricket is a vigorous and manly game, free from abuses that attend some other field sports, and well calculated to refresh and strengthen the physical powers, while it has sufficient science in its elements to give a not unprofitable exercise to the mental faculties also.

Cricket, for so universal a pastime, is a very modern game. It owes its origin, in its present form, to a meeting in the year 1774, of some noblemen and gentlemen, who wished to improve the "bat and ball" of the period, and drew up a set of rules to fix the character of the implements employed, as well as the mode of play. These rules were subsequently amended and modified, and they gradually gained general acceptance. The first great cricket club was established at the close of the last century. It was called the White Conduit Club, from the circumstance of its play usually being held in the White Conduit Fields; and from this club the far-famed Marylebone Club of the present day took its rise.

There are two forms of the game of cricket-one known as single, and the other as double wicket. For single wicket only a few players are required; but for double wicket, it is neces

We cannot here touch upon the ingenious and refined processes by which measurements are made when extreme accuracy is required, as, for instance, in determining a new standard lengthsary, to play the proper game, that two sides should be formed, from the old one, or in finding to what amount of variation a given measured length is subject, from unavoidable external canses. The reader may consult the article Standard in the "Penny Cyclopædia," which will give him a good general idea of the subject.

[merged small][merged small][merged small][merged small][merged small][merged small][merged small][merged small][merged small][merged small][merged small][merged small][ocr errors][merged small][merged small][merged small][ocr errors][merged small][merged small][merged small][merged small][ocr errors][merged small][merged small][ocr errors][merged small][merged small][merged small][merged small][merged small]

CLOTH MEASURE.

[ocr errors]

with eleven players on each side. Any large open field, that is tolerably level, will do for the practice of the game; but a good cricket ground, fit for the set play of club against club, should be at least that portion of it between the wicketsas level and as well kept as a good bowling-green, or, as is sometimes said with but little exaggeration, as a billiard-table." The implements used in the game are bats, balls, and wickets. In single wicket one bat and one wicket only are necessary; for the double game there must be at least two of each, an extra supply being always advisable in case of an accident during the game. The form of the cricket-bat is, no doubt, familiar to all our readers; its length should be suited to the height of the player, and such that he may wield it readily and with good effect; but, by the rules of the game, no bat must be more than thirty-eight inches long, or more than four-and-aquarter inches in the widest part.

seam.

[ocr errors]

The ball is made of leather, and as it has to undergo very hard usage, it is best if made with what is known as the "treble Its size is fixed at not less than nine inches nor more than nine-and-a-quarter inches in circumference. It must weigh not less than five-and-a-half ounces, nor more than five ounces and three-quarters. Both sides in the game play with the same ball; but at the commencement of each innings either party may call for a new one. The player is not restricted as to the precise bat he may use, provided it be a cricket-bat within the dimensions above specified.

Each wicket consists of three stumps, usually made of strong and polished wood, and pointed at one end so as to be firmly fixed in the ground. The height at which they stand when set is fixed at twenty-seven inches out of the ground. There must be sufficient space between the stumps to prevent the ball from passing through. The top of each stump is grooved, and in

In the measurement of cloth, linen, etc., the following lengths the grooves, when the stumps are set, two small pieces of wood

are sometimes used :

[merged small][merged small][merged small][merged small][merged small][merged small][merged small][ocr errors][merged small][merged small][merged small]

6 quarters

1 Fr. e.

"

= 1 French ell

called bails are laid from stump to stump. The length of the bails is fixed at eight inches.

These are all the accessories that are actually required for the game. But padded gloves and leg-guards are frequently used by the principal players-the batsman and the wicketkeeper to prevent injury to the hands or legs when playing.

The last three measures are now very seldom used in England. They are especially useful when the bowling is of the fast order

[blocks in formation]

which has become so much in vogue in recent times. One set is sufficient for a small club, or for a school party, for the common use of its members; but young players can do very well without them, when they have only beginners like themselves to contend against.

[ocr errors]
« 前へ次へ »