Characteristics: Inflorescence in a capitulum, receptacle, or torus, common, surrounded by an involucre; calyx tubular, adherent to the ovary; corolla epigynous, monopetalous; stamens five, rarely four; anthers united to the tube by their edges; ovary inferior, unilocular, uniovular; ovule erect; fruit, an achænium; plant, dicotyledonous, exalbuminous; radicle, inferior. The Composite, of which at the present time not less than 9,000 species are known, constitute the tenth part of the vegetable kingdom, and, therefore, perhaps ought to constitute a class rather than a natural order; nevertheless, the type which they present is so characteristic, that, in spite of their great numerical superiority over other natural groups, botanists have continued to regard them as an order.

For the most part the Composite are herbs, generally perennials; certain species are ligneous; indeed, a few are arborescent, constituting trees of large size. The leaves are generally alternate, various as to their form, but always without stipules. The capitula always present the general appearance of a corymb or a cyme; the aggregate inflorescence is therefore definite; but each compound flower entering into the cyme or corymb is indefinite, as is sufficiently made known by the order of floral development-the external florets always being the first to expand. Perhaps the best manner of studying the compound inflorescence is to regard each capitulum as a spike flattened down upon itself in such a manner that what it loses in length is gained in thickness. Upon this normal spike each floret grows from the axilla of a bract; therefore, we ought to find upon this compound spike bracts in equal number to the flowers, and situated externally to them. But the normal state is still further disturbed by the perishing, or abortion, to use a phrase common in botanical descriptions, of some of the florets, in consequence of pressure made upon them by their fellows. Hence it follows that only the bracts appertaining to the outside florets ever arrive at maturity, and form the general involucrum. The internal bracts are merely represented by minute scales, silk-like filaments, or hairs.

When we analyse in this manner the nature of a capitulum, the explanation is seen of the different aspect assumed by the torus, or flower-disc, in various genera of compound flowers. In the chamomile it is covered with hair; in the blue corn-flower it is silky; in the onopordon, or cotton thistle, it is alveolar (Latin, alveolus, a socket, the diminutive of alveus, a large hollow vessel), that is to say, studded with socket-like indentations, similar to those in which are embedded the teeth of animals. Finally, in certain Composite, of which the Dandelion may be taken as an example, it is absolutely naked.

In the greater number of cases, each floret of a compound flower bears stamens and pistils, as in the corn centaury (Fig. 93, page 280, Vol. I.), the full representation of which will be given in Fig. 173; but in others the florets of the circumference alone are pistilliferous, as is seen in the chrysanthemum (Fig. 101, page 280, Vol. I.); or even sterile, or devoid of both pistils and stamens. Again, certain remaining members of the Composite order have staminiferous flowers in the centre and pistilliferous flowers on the circumference; of this kind is the marigold. Finally, there are yet others, the flowers of which are entirely staminiferous, or entirely pistilliferous; and these flowers may be on one or two separate plants.

The calyx, the tube of which is adherent to the ovary and altogether confounded with it, terminates in a limb or free portion, which is subject to numerous modifications of form; thus furnishing excellent characters for the distinction of genera. It is completely effaced in the chrysanthemum (Fig. 101); it forms a crown in the wild chamomile and tansy; and is developed in tooth-like protuberances, or lamellar scales, in the sunflower (Fig. 83, page 241, Vol. I.), French marigold, and chicory. Frequently it degenerates into hairy or silk-like filaments, forming a

ore inserted upon the tube of the corolla, and its divisions; the pistil is composed of a vary one-celled, uniovular. Certain fanciful

botanists, having regard to the aggregation of many individual florets in a compound flower, have imagined this great natural order as representing the citizen tribe of vegetables-as being more elevated in civilisation, so to speak, and as deserving to take precedence of all other natural families. To decide on the matter of precedence is in no case an easy task; but it is certain the Composito contain a great number of highly valuable plants; it is certain, too, that extraordinary means are taken by nature for their generation and preservation. How beautiful the provision made for the dispersion of their dried fruits, commonly termed seeds! These fruits, which the reader will now remember are termed by botanists achania, remain upon the torus, or receptacle enclosed by the withered bracts, until ripe; they are then dispersed. Various methods are adopted to bring about this dispersion, and they are all beautiful. In some species, the torus, after the withering of the floral envelopes, shoots up in the form of a spire, thus presenting every facility for the acheniums to escape. In other species, as the colt's foot, the torus becomes, during the ripening of the fruit, inverted in such a manner that the fruits are emptied, as it were, out of their sockets. In the chamomile the same result is accomplished by the assumption by the torus, as the fruits ripen, of a globular instead of a plane condition. In the cotton thistle, the alveolar processes become so contracted during the ripening of the fruits, that the latter are extruded; but amongst all provisions made by Nature for the distribution of the fruit of Composite, perhaps the most beautiful consists in the plume, or aigrette, with which some are furnished. This plume is nothing else than the dried limb or free portion of the calyx. In the genera which have this appendage, it is worthy of remark, that the involucrum is supplied with long, serrated, imbricated bracts, which surround the achænia, protect them, and favour their ripening. In certain species, the involucrum opens of itself as soon as the fruits arrive at maturity, thus allowing the latter to escape and float on their winged appendages; in others there is another provision. The involucrum, instead of opening spontaneously, has a tendency to remain closed. Whilst the wing-like appendages of the achania are yet unripe and devoid of elasticity, there is nothing to prevent the closing tendency of the involucrum from taking effect; but no sooner do the fruits ripen than their plumes or wings, tending to expand the outermost ones to a horizontal position, force open the involucrum by their spring-like elasticity, and the fruits are now free to move in obedience to the first passing breeze. In this way the achenia are transported often to the distance of several miles. Not content even with this beautiful provision in all its simplicity, the plumes of certain Composite, mindful, as it would seem, of their citizen-like traditions, aggregate to gether into a compound plumule. In this manner occasionally a mimic cloud of dandelion fruits may be seen pursuing thei devious course to some unknown spot.

LESSONS IN GERMAN.—XXIX. SECTION LVII.-EXAMPLES ILLUSTRATING THE VARIOUS

USES OF THE PREPOSITIONS.
A 11.

3m 3nnern Deutschlands geschab', In the interior of Germany
was von jeher geschah', wenn es
tem Throne an einem Kaiser, over
vem Kaiser an einem Kaisersinne
fehlte. (Schiller.)

Wir stehen weit von einander ab an Jahren, an geprüf'tem Werth. (Göthe.)

Er ist an der Aus'zehrung gestorben. Muß ich auch an deiner Liebe zwei feln? (Schiller.)

Die Freunte werten irr' an tir! (Schiller.)

An die Angst der Mutter denfst tu

nicht.

Er schrieb einen Brief an mich. (Er schrieb mir einen Brief.) Man fennt den Bogel an ben Fe.

bern.

events took place which have ever occurred before, when the throne was without an Emperor, or the Emperor without an imperial mind We stand far from each other in years, in recognised worth

He (has) died of consumption. Must I likewise doubt of thy

love?

(The) thy friends are becoming perplexed about thee. Of the anxiety of the mother

thou dost not think. He wrote a letter to me. (He wrote [to] me a letter.) One knows the bird by its (the)

feathers.

Since the arrival of his father

he appears to be contented. He has been (is) here а week.

There has not been such a sterile year within the memory of man.

Ueber.

Das geht über meinen Verstand'.

Sie sind schon über ein Jahr hier.

Er erhält Brief über Brief.
Sie zog den Schleier über tas
Gesicht'.

Er war über diese Antwort ganz entrüst'et.

Er hat über diesen Punkt noch nicht entschieden.

Cook's Beglei'ter schweigen von den Mineralien Neuhollants, und scheinen über den Reizen der dor'tigen Flora vergessen zu haben, daß auch der Boten, über den sie hin'eilten, die Blicke des Kenners verbie'nte. (G. Forster.)

Laß den Herbst in schwarzen Wettern hoch über unserm Haupte ziehn.

seinen Freund.

11 m.

He has already laid money aside (up).

He took him by the hand.

Till this moment. We remain till evening. To this hour I do not know how it was possible for him to live as he did (live). He goes as far as (to) Vienna. The water reached up to his

neck.

One point excepted, they are agreed.

He does not go before he has

finished his business.

Die Ritter sehten sich um den runten Tisch.

wishes.

That is (goes) beyond my comprehension.

You are (have been) here already more than a year. He receives letter upon letter. She drew the veil over her (the) face.

He was perfectly indignant at this reply.

He has not yet decided concerning this point. Cook's companions were silent respecting the minerals of New Holland, and appear, amidst the charms of the Flora of that country, to have forgotten that the soil over which they hurried was likewise deserving of the scrutiny of the philosopher. Let the autumn in dark storms sweep high above our heads.

In order to save his life he betrayed his friend.

The knights seated themselves about the round table.

the head.

herum'.

Sie rennen um die Wette.
Was thut man nicht um Geld?

Gr ist um halb zwei angekommen.
Es dreht sich Alles um mich.
Man hat ihn um sein Vermögen

(um sein Gelt) gebracht'. Es muß um einen Zell länger sein.

Sie kümmern sich mehr um den Krug, als um ten Krieg. (Schiller.)

Unter.

Die Soldaten stehen unter Waffen. Das ganze Land steht unter Wasser.

around the city.

They run for a wager. What does one not (do) for money?

Everything turns about me. He arrived at half-past one. They have deprived him of (got away) his property. It must be (by) an inch longer.

They concern themselves more about the wine (jug) than the

Schmach räche?

Es ist unter uns kein Geheim'niß.

Bør.

Sie führten ihn vor den Richter.

Der Frühling ist vor der Thür.

Ich will mich nicht vor dir verber's

gen.

Vor ihr habe ich keine Geheim'nisse.

may avenge this outrage? There is no secret among us.

They brought him before the judge.

The spring is at (before) the door (at hand).

I will not conceal myself from

thee.

Before her I have no secrets.

HISTORIC SKETCHES.-XIX.

THE DAGGER SCENE IN THE HOUSE OF COMMONS. On the 28th of December, 1792, the English House of Commons was occupied by a very grave subject, and the foremost men of the day took part in the debate. The subject under consideration was whether or not aliens-that is to say, persons not subjects of the King of England-should not be subjected to some regulations, such as giving security for good behaviour, while resident within the realm. Among those who took part in the debate were Pitt, Fox, Sheridan, Erskine, Lord Sheffield, Grey, and Burke, and the contest among them ran high.

The Government had thought fit to bring in a bill for the regulation of aliens, to the intent it might be known who was and who was not in the country, and they justified their measure by an appeal to the existing state of public affairs. Mr. Fox, who was at the time leader of the Opposition, vehemently denounced the bill as utterly unnecessary, and quite unworthy of the Government. A few nights before, in the course of a debate on the influence of the French constitution, and more especially on a proposal of his own that the king should be requested to send a minister to Paris to negotiate with the French Provisional Government, he had used the most violent and inflammatory language, and had asserted that the country, so far from being in the unsettled condition described by the ministers, was perfectly quiet, perfectly loyal, and that there did not exist any warrant, in fact, for the exceptional legislation demanded by the Government. His proposal had been, indeed, rejected, but the same spirit which induced him to make it continued to animate him, and on the Alien Bill he spoke with his wonted warmth, eloquence, and bitterness. The year before he had-not of his own will, certainly-publicly broken a friendship with Burke which had lasted for a quarter of a century; Mr. Burke having on that occasion said in the House of Commons, adverting to the effect which his altered opinions upon the current of French affairs would have upon his private friendships, alluding more especially to his friendship with Fox, "I know the value of my line of conduct; I have, indeed, made a great sacrifice. I have done my duty, though I have lost my friend. There is something in the detested French constitution that envenoms everything it touches."

Attempts were made to heal the mortal wound which the friendship of these two men had received, but to no purpose; the breach was irreparable, and on the Alien Bill, therefore, Burke and Fox were widely opposed. On the 28th of December, 1792, Burke, who did not rise till late in the evening, spoke long and eloquently on the question. He said that the ministers of a monarchy could not, and ought not, to have their hands tied behind them while the emissaries of republicanism, regicide, and atheism poured into the country with the intention to destroy it, and were yet, through the weakness of the law, to be beyond control. From discussing the principles he went on to describe the practice of those whom he called "emissaries of republicanism, regicide, and atheism," and whom he accused of trying to spread their doctrine of liberty, fraternity, and equality by the sword. Information had come to him that 3,000 daggers had been ordered from Birmingham by the friends of liberty, fraternity, and equality; and in order to make a deep impression on the house, he had resorted to the somewhat theatrical expedient of hiding a dagger under his waistcoat.

At the proper moment, when the attention of the house was concentrated on him, and when his actions, whatever they might be, were certain of being reported, he put his hand inside his waistcoat and drew forth the dagger, which he flung before him on the floor of the house. "This," said he, pointing to the dagger, "is what you are to gain by an alliance with France; wherever their principles are introduced, their practice must follow. You must equally proscribe their tenets and their persons from our shores ;" and he ended an impassioned address by begging the house to strengthen the hands, not of the ministry, not of the Opposition, but of the country, by passing the Aliens' Bill.

Happily for us, the times have passed away when such an exhibition, so theatrical, so sensational, would be tolerated in the House of Commons; happily, too, there has not, since 1792, been a recurrence of those circumstances which then made exceptional legislation of the kind mentioned desirable. But manners and customs were different then, and it would be wrong

to judge of Mr. Burke's conduct by the light of the conduct of a great political leader at the present time. The circumstances, too, were different to anything within our experience. Let us consider them a little, and see whether the famous "dagger scene was so much out of place after all.

In 1789 the French Revolution broke out-that is to say, in that year the French people, tired of the load of tyranny and legalised selfishness which had been imposed upon them for centuries, and moved by the exhortations of men who gave themselves out as, and believed themselves to be, the friends of mankind, rose in their wild strength, and, ignorant of the goal where true liberty and true national happiness were to be found, goaded on by the fierce spirits who ever come to the surface, coming and going like bubbles in time of great public disturbance, maddened by long years of suffering and oppression, conscious only of strength, unconscious how to use it, impelled forwards by the very fact that their existence depended on progress, seeing that the interests and principles of all then existing governments were directly opposed to them-this great people woke up to the conviction they were alive, and they exhibited an amount of vitality and energy that truly took the nations by surprise.

In order to give an accurate idea of the causes which led to the Revolution, it would be necessary to go back through the history of France for a period of two hundred years. We have not space to do this even in a cursory examination, but we may mention some of the principal matters which proved intolerably burdensome to the French people. The many obligations of the feudal system (general notice was taken of these in Historic Sketches, I.) were more offensively enforced, and therefore more keenly felt, in France than in any other European country, and there, too, they were exacted till a date far beyond that at which they had been quite abandoned elsewhere. This of itself was evil enough to rouse the indignation of the classes beneath; but added to it was the injury done by a system of government of which the fundamental principle was feudalism; that is to say, a principle which had regard solely to the interests of the few, who were to be supported in power and sustained in insolence at the expense of the many. And this system of government was carried very far. At one time the nobles were the exponents of it, each ruling absolutely and tyrannically on his separate estate, grinding all he could out of his villeins, as they were called, and caring nothing for their individual welfare. Against this oppression the peasantry lodged a practical and brutal protest at the time of the Jacquerie,* in 1358, when the hour of trial and humiliation had come upon the nobles of France through the hands of the Black Prince. When the English armies overran the country, and the French had been beaten with a dreadful slaughter, the French peasants rose upon their native oppressors, and slew them root and branch, often murdering, in their ignorance and blind fury, those who were really their benefactors, and being guilty of the crime of killing women and children. Only by the aid of the Black Prince and his knights was this formidable insurrection of one class against another suppressed, and the lower classes would have been relegated indefinitely to their former bondage, but for the desire of the French kings-a desire which could not be gratified without the help of the people-"to deliver the Crown from wardship," or to free it from the restraints imposed upon it by the power of the great nobles.

As a consequence of this coalition, temporary though it was, between the Crown and the people, some slight benefit accrued to the latter; but when the object for which the Crown had striven had been attained, the people found out by experience that it was unwise to put their trust in princes. Once more they were handed over, or, what had the same effect, were left. to, the tender mercies of the cruel, and they had to bear the kingly tyranny as well. They had to live the lives of slaves on the estates of the landed proprietors, rising early and late taking rest,

"Barred from delight by Fate's untimely hand,

By wealthless lot, or pitiless command," condemned to ignorance lest they should learn to know their strength, and crushed under the weight of laws in the making of

* The Jacquerie was so called from the name Jacques Bonhomme, which was the generic name given to French peasants, as John Bull is the generic name descriptive of Englishmen.