4

rogatively, and when the governing word is far removed,

as,

Who should I see in the lid of it [a snuffbox] but the Doctor?-ADDISON.

"Who," I exclaimed, "can we consult but Miss P.?”— MRS. HUMPHREY WARD.

Perhaps one reason for the loss of case in such sentences as, "Who are you speaking of?" is that who is felt to be in a sense the logical subject, as if the sentence were, "Who is it that you are speaking of? "

There are many instances in literature where who seems to be used objectively, as,

Tell who loves who.-DRYDEN.

I'll tell you who Time ambles withall, who Time trots withall, who Time gallops withall, and who he stands still withall.-SHAKESPEARE.

This ignoring of case form is sometimes extended to the relative use of who. Schmidt's Lexicon of Quotations from Shakespeare gives fifteen instances of the interrogative and twelve of the relative use of who in objective relations. It is to be noted, however, that the early editions of Shakespeare have who in many cases where the later ones have whom. The influence of schoolmasters is here shown. There are also instances in literature where what may be called a supergrammatical sense has attracted whom into relations where it was not required, as,

Whom do men say that I, the Son of Man, am?—BIBLE,

While case variations are very common in literature, colloquial variations are carried much farther still.

Some of the dialects used in England show such expressions as, "Is that him? No. It's no him; it's just me."

The following couplet is said to be taken from a Hampshire churchyard:

"Him shall never come again to we

But us shall surely go one day to he."

Cowper uses this colloquialism with humorous effect:

"You shall ride on horseback after we.'

The English pronouns still have case forms, and the use of the wrong case form is perhaps one of the most conspicuous faults in grammatical usage that can be made. Yet in not a few expressions (more or less idiomatic) usage differs widely. The pronoun case forms are to some extent in a state of flux. It is the part of grammarians to be conservative in resisting changes that may be detrimental to the purity of the language. Yet there are limits beyond which it is useless for dogmatic criticism to go. One should keep one's eyes open to the tendencies, and seek to understand the reasons for the variations, and then decide in a given case with discrimination as well as conservatism, trying always to preserve whatever is worth preserving in the inflectional forms that are still left to the English tongue.

LV

WORDS OF PECULIAR OR VARIED USES

Not only does the same word serve now in one capacity and now in another, but also it constantly occurs that the characteristics of different parts of speech are manifested at one time by one word in its ordinary sense.-DAVENPORT AND EMERSON.

The word it is the greatest troubler that I know of in language.-COBBETT.

The instrument ever adapting itself to the uses which it is to subserve.-WHITNEY.

There are a few words that are so often used in peculiar relations or are capable of taking so many different uses that they may well be made the subject of special grammatical examination. These are for the most part small indeclinable words of little specialized meaning, and for this reason capable of filling grammatical gaps.

A good exercise in grammar is to take a certain word and trace it through all its idiomatic uses, writing sentences that will illustrate all the uses to which the word can be put.

One of these words is the neuter pronoun it, sometimes called the indefinite or impersonal pronoun. A comprehensive study of the word would begin with its earlier form hit and trace also the gradual introduction

of its modern possessive form its. To-day the poet still uses his where the philosopher says its. Some of the impersonal, expletive, and other uses of it have been already noticed. In the games of children it has a wide-spread and peculiar use as a proper noun, as, "It is now my turn to be IT."

What is a word of very varied relationship. Its uses as pronoun and adjective, both in relative and interrogative relations should be illustrated; also its use as an interjection, as, "What! do you really mean it?"

Other idiomatic uses of what may be illustrated as follows:

"He found a miscellaneous collection of shells, stones, chips, and what not."

"What though the day be lost, all is not lost,"

"In building of chaises I tell you what,"

"What with this, what with that,"

These expressions with what are usually very elliptical, and it is not always easy to see what the ellipsis has been. They may be recognized as current idioms of English, even when the history of the idiom is in a degree lost.

Similar treatment may be given to as, which may be either conjunction or adverb, or both combined, and is occasionally used as a relative pronoun as, "Such as I have give I thee,” i. e.: “Those which I have," etc.

The correlative relations of as with such, same, so, etc., should be specially noticed, also the connection of

as with certain stereotyped phrases, as for me, as yet, as far as I am able, etc.

The important verbal form be may be either infinitive, subjunctive, imperative, or an auxiliary in a verbal phrase. As a finite verb be is now always subjunctive or imperative, but it formerly had an indicative use also, as, "Ye be righteous men." In provincial dialect we still sometimes hear this ancient indicative used by rural citizens as, "Be you going to plant potatoes in that field?

The verbs do and have when used as principal verbs have a very definite and specialized meaning, but this is almost wholly lost in their auxiliary relations. Have especially shows the results of change in its use and meaning. Beginning as a principal verb with the idea of possession it loses this almost wholly when made an auxiliary for the perfect tense. The idea given by have in these phrases is that of completed state or action, rather than of possession. The original idea of have as possess, also included the idea of to hold and so to esteem, which gave rise to the idiom had rather. Have has gained also a modern meaning of obligation, giving rise to such expressions, as, "I have to do it." "Have at thee!" illustrates another ancient idiom now out of use.

As a subjunctive had frequently begins a sentence, as, "Had I the power, I would not use it."

"Get

Get as a principal verb means to obtain, as, wisdom, get understanding," but it is sometimes needlessly used with have to denote possession, as, “I have