treating the subject, as from the nature of the subject itself. It must be evident to every one, that all moral actions must have been performed before the pleasure or benefit resulting from them could have been felt; and as this must have been truly the case with all the virtues, if we look at them from their commencement, it is somewhat difficult to conceive how rewards and punishments, or good and evil, could have been considered as the primary causes of those moral actions. And yet is not the opinion in unison with the common notions of all mankind ? and does it not lie at the foundation of all moral and religious instruction, that rewards and punishments, or benefit or misery, are the incentives to and primary causes of all morality among men? Here, then, is a seeming contradiction in the very nature of things, or perhaps, more properly speaking, in the way we perceive them,-a contradiction clearly perceived by Dr. Clarke, and which he has endeavoured to remove, but without effect. In his third proposition he says, ،، that the same eternal moral obligations, which are of themselves incumbent indeed on all rational creatures, antecedent to any respect of particular rewards and punishments, must yet necessarily and certainly be attended with rewards and punishments. He en

deavours to prove this from the attributes of God, and from the necessity there is to vindicate his laws and government. But his efforts, however plausible, must be pronounced to be unavailing. He cannot make it appear how these eternal moral obligations, which he says are antecedent to all rewards and punishments, must necessarily be attended with these same rewards and punishments. Admirably constituted as his mind seems to have been for coping with speculative difficulties, it here gives evident signs of its own insufficiency for the task assigned to it.

As a moral writer, Dr. Clarke cannot be considered as standing in the first class; but, as far as he has entered into the subject, he displays the same degree of acuteness and force of argumentation which are so conspicuous in every other topic which has fallen under his notice. It must be remembered that he has made the theoretical principles of morality subservient to another object,—that of establishing the truth of natural and revealed religion. His language has been characterised by a late eminent philosopher as pompous and tautological; but this, if applied generally to his writings, is, I conceive, unmerited censure, for his language in many places is chaste, correct, and forcible, and as far re

moved from bombast and emptiness as can well be imagined. Perhaps there is not so fine a specimen of abstract reasoning on moral subjects to be found anywhere as in his illustrations of his first proposition, where he notices more particularly the theory of Hobbes. Here the Doctor has happily brought forward all that has been, or likely can be, said in the shape of argument against the moral speculations of that celebrated writer on human nature. There is a deep sense of the importance of virtue running through the whole of Clarke's writings; and though abstract principles and subtile reasonings have not, in the opinion of many, much influence in moving the heart and affections, or in forming noble sentiments of virtue in the mind, yet no one, I think, can peruse his works without feeling a sensible degree of moral and intellectual improvement.

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CHAPTER XI.

CHARACTERISTICS.

EARL OF SHAFTESBURY.

ANTHONY ASHLEY COOPER, third Earl of Shaftesbury, was born in London in the year 1671. He became from his birth an object of his grandfather's tender regard, who undertook the care of his education, and placed him under the charge of a Mrs. Birtch, who had acquired from her father considerable classical knowledge. Such are said to have been the effect of her judicious instructions upon her noble pupil, that when he had attained his eleventh year he was well versed in Grecian and Roman literature, for which, it is affirmed, he retained a strong predilection to the end of his life. He was placed first at a private school, and afterwards at that of Winchester, which, in consequence of meeting with some ill treatment from the other boys of the school, he left in disgust, and commenced his travels on the Continent, under the care and

protection of a Mr. Daniel Denovan, a Scotch gentleman well qualified for the task.

On his return from abroad he was offered a seat in the House of Commons, which he then refused; but five years afterwards he came into the House, for the borough of Poole in Dorsetshire. But he took little share in legislative transactions, and he quitted the Commons in a short time, and retired into a private life, which seemed more congenial to his habits and dispositions.

Having returned to a private capacity, he eagerly engaged in literary pursuits, and, in the character of a student of physic, spent a considerable portion of his time in Holland, associating with Bayle, Le Clerc, and other men of letters. As Bayle was not aware of his real name, he took the following method to let him into the secret:-He caused a common friend to ask him to dinner, with the view of introducing him to Lord Ashley. The morning of the day on which this engagement was to be fulfilled, Bayle called upon Lord Ashley, who pressed him to stay. That is impossible, said Bayle, for I have a positive appointment to meet with Lord Ashley at dinner. This incident created a good deal of harmless mirth, and the discovery strengthened their mutual friendship.