open to mankind which may lead them to very incorrect and loose modes of reasoning relative to the nature and extent of moral obligation. A man wandering through the mazes of politics with only the glimmering torch of public or private utility or expediency for his guide, is like a ship at sea without either rudder or compass. Hence it is that we so commonly see in society, the man of the most perfect and heartless selfishness, and the crazy votary of theoretical delusion, each appealing in his turn, with vehemence and confidence, to the infallible rule of moral rectitude-the real or supposed advantages which are likely to flow from their respective actions and opinions.

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CHAPTER XXVI.

REV. THOMAS GISBorne.

PRINCIPLES OF MORAL AND POLITICAL
PHILOSOPHY.

THE REV. Thomas Gisborne is perpetual curate of Barton-under-Needwood, Staffordshire, and a prebend of Durham. He is well known in literature, for his numerous and excellent writings on moral and religious subjects.

The "Principles of Moral and Political Philosophy" were written by Mr. Gisborne with a view of counteracting, in some degree, the erroneous opinions and conclusions which he conceived were involved in Dr. Paley's system of morality. The theory of utility, and that of expediency, (which is merely a branch of it) have been already discussed at considerable length; therefore a very

brief notice of Mr. Gisborne's views is all that is necessary here. He expresses himself as to the nature of Paley's doctrine in the following language, which embodies the general nature and tenor of his strictures on the doctor's tenets.

"I apprehend, however, that the principle of expediency is not supported in Mr. Paley's work by any proof which will stand the test of close examination; that it is liable, in the hands of men, to such misapplication and perversion, that its general reception would apparently be most unfavourable to human happiness; that it is totally incompatible with the precepts of Scripture; and that it never could be designed, nor can possibly be adapted, for the regulation of human conduct. In the following pages I shall endeavour to establish the validity of these assertions; and in place of general expediency, to substitute and apply other principles, founded on reason, confirmed by revelation, and consequently not exposed to similar objections."*

The principles which Mr. Gisborne lays down as a substitute for the loose ones which expediency furnishes, are the following, which are deducible from our common reason, and constitute the foun

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dation of the civil rights and obligations of mankind.

"1st. Every man has originally a right, by the gift of God, to the unrestrained enjoyment of life and personal freedom; and to such a portion of the unappropriated productions of the earth as is necessary for his comfortable subsistence.

"2d. He, therefore, who deprives another of these gifts, or restrains him in the enjoyment of them, except such deprivation or restraint is sanc tioned by divine authority, is guilty of an act of injustice to the individual, and of sin against God.

"3d. Every man originally has authority from God to deprive another of these gifts, or to restrain him in the enjoyment of them in the following cases, and those only:

"1. When in so doing he acts according to the express will of God.

"2. When he proceeds in such deprivation and restraint so far, and so far only, as is necessary for the defence of the gifts of God to himself, or in defence of the gifts of God to those whom he is bound by natural ties to protect, or those by whom his aid is solicited or deemed acceptable, against attacks unauthorized by God.

"3. When he proceeds to such deprivation or restraint, in consequence of the consent of the individual suffering it.

"4. Every man sins against God who does not act in such a manner with respect to the use, defence, and disposal of his rights, which have been established in the preceding propositions, as he is of opinion will, on the whole, fulfil most effectually the purposes of his being."

It is when we examine into that department of morality which goes under the denomination of justice, that men are led into difficulties by the advocates of expediency. Our relations in society, and the duties which result from them, are so numerous and complicated, that we cannot trace them to the general abstract principles of right and obligation, which reason points out to us, and revelation enforces. Hence it is, that as the advocates of utility and expediency furnish us, or pretend to furnish us at least, with a rule or standard by which the value of our actions is to be determined, we are very easily led to avail ourselves of it. It is here that the disciple of Paley becomes formidable; and we have an instance of this in the concluding part of Mr. Gisborne's fourth proposition, which is marked by italics. A man is to regulate his conduct in such