a way, "as he is of opinion, will, on the whole, fulfil effectually the purposes of his being." Here a man must have a standard of some kind, by which he is to estimate what will, upon the whole, be conducive to the great end of effectually fulfilling the purposes of his being; and that the standard which will, in nine cases out of ten, present itself to his mind as the readiest, will be that of the utility or benefit which he thinks will accrue to himself or the community, from what he performs.

Mr. Gisborne combats with considerable ingenuity Dr. Paley's objections to the political theory of a social contract, and I think the former has decidedly the better of the argument.

CHAPTER XXVII.

MR. JEREMY BENTHAM.

INTRODUCTION TO THE PRINCIPLES OF MORALS
AND LEGISLATION.

MR. JEREMY BENTHAM was a Barrister at law, of Lincoln's Inn, and brother to General Sir Samuel Bentham. Mr. Bentham has now for nearly half a century been known to the public for his writings on subjects principally connected with law and politics. He died in 1832.

Mr. Bentham's moral speculations were sent forth to the world to effect a mere secondary object, that of clearing the way for certain systems of legislation, and reforms in law. The author had projected several treatises on jurisprudence and government, but he found that without a comprehensive and exact knowledge of the principles of moral obligation and duty, these works would, to the majority of readers, be but very imperfectly understood.

Mr. Bentham's theory of morality is that of utility. He has pushed this principle to its utmost limits ; but as we have already discussed this theory, all that is necessary here, is merely to state the author's views in the concisest manner possible. In the first paragraphs of his "Introduction to the Principles of Morals and Legislation," he maintains that "Nature has placed mankind under the governance of two sovereign masters, Pain and Pleasure. It is for them alone to point out what we ought to do, as well as to determine what we shall do. On the one hand, the standard of right and wrong, on the other, the chain of causes and effects are fastened to their throne. They govern us in all we do, in all we say, in all we think; every effort we can make to throw off our subjection, will serve but to demonstrate and confirm it. In words, a man may pretend to abjure their empire, but in reality he will remain subject to it all the while. The principle of utility recognises this subjection, and assumes it for the foundation of that system, the object of which is to rear the fabric of felicity by the hands of reason and law. Systems which attempt to question it, deal in sounds instead of sense, in caprice instead of reason, in darkness instead of light."

CHAPTER XXVIII.

MR. WILLIAM GODWIN.

AN ENQUIRY CONCERNING POLITICAL JUSTICE, AND ITS INFLUENCE ON MORALS AND HAPPINESS.

WILLIAM GODWIN is the son of a respectable dissenting minister at Guestwick, Norfolk. He was educated at the Dissenters' College, Hexton, and in 1778 began to officiate as minister at Showmarket, Suffolk, where he continued till 1782, when he laid aside his clerical character, and removed to London, in order to pursue literature as a profession. He is the author of many popular works, and is at this moment (1833) still in possession of a vigorous mind.

Mr. Godwin's book entitled "An Enquiry concerning Political Justice, and its Influence on Morals and Happiness," excited, at the period of its publication, a considerable portion of attention among philosophers, as well as the reading public at large. Its principles and reasons were keenly

examined; and, perhaps, no book has appeared in modern times, of such a philosophical and abstruse character, which has given rise to a greater diversity of opinion, or more opposite and conflicting sentiments. But in later years, this once comparatively popular treatise has ceased to be read or noticed; and the distinguished and able author has now to witness, what is more or less painful to all authors, that he has himself outlived the fame and reputation of a favourite production.

It cannot be supposed that a complete abridgment or analysis of the "Political Justice" can be given here; for there is such a multiplicity of topics treated of by the author, and he has supported his views with illustrations, (to use a metaphor,) drawn from the four winds of heaven, that it would require a person well versed in all matters of learning connected with human nature, to profit by or relish the publication in question. Indeed, to treat of many parts of this work would be evidently stepping beyond our province; for we would have to descant on legislation, diplomacy, metaphysics, and many other subjects besides, which are, in a great measure, foreign to the nature and plan of this publication. We will therefore confine our remarks to a few leading topics connected with Mr. Godwin's