faid that fome of the Ulemah undertook, with more zeal than prudence, to reclaim the apoftates by argument. How their dif cuffions were carried on, it would be difficult to afcertain exactly. The Moflem, it may be fuppofed, would infist on the direct evidence which the witneffes of the life and actions of Mahomet poffeffed of his divine commiffion, and on the firm eftablishment and wide diffufion of the faith, in fpite of the mighty and numerous obstacles which the Prophet and his immediate followers had to encounter. The Wahabees would probably affert their better right to be heard, as bearing teftimony from their own knowledge to the frequent interpofitions of Heaven in favour of Abdul, who, if that were any proof of divine protection, had introduced the new doctrines under difficulties and dangers unprecedented in the religious revolutions of the Eaft. The religion of Mahomet,' they probably added, is a partial religion, which was not intended for us. How can we (they would fay) perform ablutions, when we have no water? How can we give alms, when we have no riches? Or what occafion can there be to fast during the month of Ramadan, when we fast all the year?' * The refult of these disputes was such as might be expected. Intolerant bigotry on one fide, and fanatical enthufiafm on the other, would fhut the ears of both parties to the language of truth and reason ; and no appeal would be fuffered to lye from the prejudices of either, but to the fabre and the mufket. The appeal to arms has indeed been made; and we have thought that, in examining the publication of a traveller, whose book is almost wholly employed in detailing the manners, laws, and customs, prevalent in the Ottoman empire, we might easily be pardoned for introducing a subject which we confider as both curious and important. The throne of the Sultan is already fhaken in Europe. Who can doubt that the propagation of the new faith will rapidly accelerate the diffolution of his power in Afia?

The Turkish empire, indeed, at the prefent day, exhibits a most fingular and anomalous appearance. To the eye, at a dif tance, it may feem a mighty and even a folid structure; but, when closely examined, it only excites aftonishment by not falling immediately to pieces. It would be impoffible for us to follow our author in the account which he has given of it, or, in the limits which we prescribe to ourselves, to attempt to do more than to draw a mere outline of the extraordinary form of its conftitution.

In order to make its real fituation be understood, we cannot perhaps begin better, than by adopting the observation of Mr Eton, who remarks, that in the Mahometan fyftem of policy, we may

See Malthus on the Principle of Population, b. I. c. 7.

trace

trace three æras. The firft was of that kind usually denominated a theocracy, continued during the lifetime of the prophet himfelf, who, like Mofes and Jofhua among the Jews, appeared in the double character of a military chief and an infpired legislator; ' the fecond lafted while the Saracen caliphs held in their hands both the fpiritual and temporal authorities; and the third is marked by the feparation of these, fince the concerns of religion have been trusted to the Ulemah, of whom the mufti is the chief. Another revolution, however, has taken place, which is fcarcely lefs important than the others. We allude to the changes in the military fyftem, and efpecially to the altered character of the Janiffaries. In two great points, then, the prefent emperor ftands in a very different pofition from the ancient fultans, fhould we even confine our views to his power in the capital of his empire. Firft, He can iffue no edict which is contrary to the Koran; and the Ulemah, who are now the fole interpreters of the meaning of that book, muft fanction every law by the authority of their fetrah, before it can become binding on the people. Nay, to fuch an extent is their power now puthed, that the Sultan finds himfelf compelled to fubmit, to the infpection of their leading men, not only all his negotiations with other courts, but all the fecrets of his cabinet. His fole defence against the encroachments of this body, confifts in his remaining right to depofe the mufti; but, though he can thus intimidate their chief, and gain over fome of their leaders by the promises of promotion, the efprit du corps acts frequently and fuccefsfully in oppofition to his will. His own minifters do not fail to take advantage of this fitua tion of things; and they often coalefce with the Ulemah, in or der to defeat the cabals which are continually carrying on againft them in the feraglio. There, every favourite has a party, and eve ry minifter a protector. But the Sultan is kept in awe by the Úlemah; nor dares he rafhly to choose men for his counsellors, who are not agreeable to those formidable interpreters of the law. Hence his power is really limited. Hence, too, he naturally endeavours to throw the chief refponfibility on his minifters, and is more easily induced to remain inactive himself. The confequen ces of this may be clearly feen in a country, where the pub lic voice is nothing; where each individal grafps at power and wealth, without any other confideration; and where pride, prejudice, ignorance, and bigotry, check every improvement, and believe in no amelioration. Secondly, The debasement of the Janizaries, by the introduction of the vileft vagabonds of the com munity into their bands, and by their long ceffation from warlike enterprizes, has diminished confiderably the power of the Sultan, as the fovereign of a vaft empire; though it has, perhaps, contri

buted

buted to his own perfonal fecurity, by effectually damping that daring spirit of revolt among his troops which had proved fatal to fo many of his predeceffors. With refpect to the military force of the Turks, we refer our readers to Mr Eton, whose statements have been adopted by Mr Griffiths. The attention of the philofophical politician, however, will be directed with more intereft to the state of the Turkish provinces. Thefe, as it is well known, are fome of the fairest, and have been fome of the happiest and most enlightened regions of the earth. Greece, Egypt, Syria, Anatolia, Arabia, recal a thoufand pleafing recollections, which can no longer be affociated with them in their prefent state of barbarifm, flavery, and degradation. The authority of the Sultan over these provinces is perhaps of the moft fingular nature which ever retained nations under the government of a fovereign. We have heard the Turkish empire compared with Europe in the feudal times, and the Pachaliks likened to thofe great fiefs which were held by feudal tenures. Some refemblance may exift; but there are effential differences. The Pachas of Bagdad, Damafcus, Aleppo, Albania, and the Morea, admit the nominal fovereignty of the Ottoman emperor, as the lords of Guienne and Burgundy paid homage to their liege the King of France. But the ki gs of France knew well, that by a prudent policy these provinces mighs revert to the crown; intermarriages might be made; wars between the great barons might be fomented, by which they would be mutually weakened; and, finally, the extinction of families promifed fooner or later to give real or pretended rights to the fovereign to affume dominion over the eftates of his vafials. In Turkey, the governor is generally the most powerful man of the province, who reigns in the name of the Sultan, without asking his leave. If it be worth his while, he fends presents to the Porte, and readily fwears allegiance to a mafter, the fhadow of whofe authority he may fometimes think it convenient to acknowledge. Even this admiffion is made rather from the prejudices of religion, than from any other motive; and Selim continues to be refpected as Caliph, where he has long ceafed to be feared as Sultan.

In his account of the Turkish finances, Dr Griffiths is again indebted to Mr Eton. We do not object to this kind of honeft plagiarism. Dr Griffiths copies whole pages from another book, and fairly confeffes it.

According to the law of Turkey, the wealth of every individual ought, at his death, to revert to the Sultan. It would be useless to expatiate on the folly and injuftice of fuch a law. That artifices fhould be employed to elude it, can be a fubject of no furprife; and that they fhould fucceed, can be a caufe of no regret, except

to the defpot and his creatures, who require fo unjust a facrifice. The ufual means of evading the claims of the Sultan, are fufficiently indicative of the hypocrify and the bigotry of the Turks. All donations for pious purpofes, fuch as the maintenance of mofques and hofpitals, are confidered as facred. When the father of a family wishes to provide for his children after his demife, he makes over the bulk of his fortune to fome religious or charitable eftablishment. A perfon is nominated to receive the appropriated fum, and another to account with the receiver for its application. But the donor has the right to appoint both these perfons, and he of courfe takes care that they fhall be the very individuals to whom he wishes to leave his eftates. The Ulemah probably receive a fufficient profit to induce them to wink at the deceit, which, by being very general, neceffarily enriches them. Our author's chapter upon these wakfs, or false affignments, if it be not quite original, will be found to be curious and entertaining.

We have not time to follow Mr Griffiths in the detail of his voyage back from Conftantinople to Smyrna. He took this opportunity of vifiting the Troad; and after reflecting upon what came under his own obfervation, during his hafly and immethodical vifit,' he confeffes himself ftrongly prejudiced in favour ‹ of thofe hypothefes' which M. Chevalier has prefented to the literary world. We are not inclined to difpute with our traveller upon a queftion which we have done our endeavours to put to rest. It is not, however, a fingle hafty and immethodical vifit to the Troad, that can entitle an author to affert, that every admirer of Homer and claffic learning muft feel themfelves deeply indebted to M. Chevalier's perfevering spirit of inquiry, for those interesting elucidations which fcepticifm only can with to depreciate.'* We were glad to find that our traveller had time for other reflec

tions.

* Mr Griffiths, in a note, takes occafion to pay a high compliment to Mr Gell, who, he fays, is entitled to every praise for a moft diligent and accurate furvey of the Troad. Mr Gell made this furvey in three days; and Mr Griffiths, who made a hafty and immethodical vifit to the Troad twenty years before, pronounces this furvey to be moft diligent and accurate!!! There is, however, one point, and it is of fome importance, about which either he who obtained, or he who beflowed the eulogy, must be ftrangely mistaken. If Mr Gell be accurate (fee the Edinburgh Review for July 1805), there are evident traces of the city and refidence of Priam. If Mr Griffiths, who admires the accuracy of Mr Gell, be himself accurate, not one ftone marks the refidence of Priam !-and fo completely annihilated is every trace of his city, that doubts have even been entertained of its having ever existed !!!

6

tions. They come, we think, more fuitably from his pen; though fome admirers of Homer and of claffical learning, more faftidious than ourselves, may admire that they should have been indited during a hafty and immethodical vifit to the plain of Troy. However the art of cooking,' fays Dr Griffiths, may be little understood by parlour guests in general, it is of too much importance to be wholly neglected by travellers who perform a journey in these countries, and in the manner I did. I have had repeated occafion,' adds he, with a confcious fenfe of talent, to congratulate myself, that my abilities in that line have prevented me from experiencing the lofs of a wholesome and comfortable meal.'

After having quitted the Troad, Dr Griffiths vifited Tenedos, Mitylene, Ipfora, and Scio. Dr Griffiths is a very gallant man, and does not fail to talk much of the beauty of the ladies in the last mentioned ifland. His criticisms on their drefs, we have no doubt, are very judicious; but we do not think it quite fair in him to publish to the world, that their fhort petticoats did not fucceed in preventing the eye of curiofity from fpying their embroidered garters.

Our traveller, after having run some risks of being either starved or drowned, arrived at Smyrna, and proceeded from that city with the caravan to Aleppo. He paffed by Sardis; had a view of the river Pactolus; faw the fnow-capped Tmolus at a distance; purfued his route to Allah-fheer, the ancient Philadelphia-to Aphiom-kara-hiffar, the ancient Apamea-to Koniah, the ancient Iconium-to Ereklee, once Heraclea-over the waters of the Cydnus-across the mountains of Taurus ;-and having paffed over from Adana to the coaft of Syria, proceeded by Seleucia, Antioch, and Martavaun to Aleppo. The account of this journey forms, in our opinion, the most interesting part of the volume in which it is contained. It cannot be read without deeply impreffing the mind with abhorrence for the cruelty, cunning, and rapacity of the modern mafters of Afia Minor. Virtue is not acknowledged if it do not conform with the precepts of the Koran; and there is fcarcely either pity or charity for the ftranger who thinks there may be other guides of duty. To treat him ill is lawful,-to infult him is meritorious. No allowance is made for difference of education, opinion, and habits. Reasoning is profcribed where bigotry is law. The Muffulman, when he fpeaks to an infidel, answers every appeal to the best feelings of the human heart, and to the best energies of the human mind, by contemptuous and opprobrious epithets. The hard ufage which our traveller met with, marks well the character of the barbarous and fuperftitious people by whom he was furrounded. It is lefs offenfive to hear of the mad ceremonies of the mad followers of Mewlana and Rufayee VOL. VIII. NO. 15.

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at