fifty-two miles. Its principal tributaries are the Douglas, Nethan, Avon, Mouse, Kelvin, Cart, and Leven. The extent of its drainage, exclusive of the Leven, is 945 square miles. Of the celebrated falls of the Clyde, two are above, and two below Lanark; the uppermost is Bonnington Linn, the height of which is about thirty feet; the second fall is Corra Linn, where the water dashes over the rock in three distinct leaps; Dundaff Fall is ten feet high, and at Stonebyres there are three distinct falls, altogether measuring about seventy-six feet in height. At high water the Clyde is navigable for the largest class of merchant vessels as far as Glasgow, and large sums of money have been expended, especially of late, in improving and deepening the channel. The Forth and Clyde Canal falls into the latter river, at Dunglass, a little above Dumbarton.

LAKES. The chief lakes of Scotland are- -Loch Lomond, lying between Dumbartonshire and Stirlingshire; Loch Ness, in Inverness-shire; Loch Maree, in Ross-shire; Loch Awe, in Argyleshire; Lochs Tay, Rannoch, and Ericht, in Perthshire, &c.

MINERAL PRODUCE.-The minerals of Scotland are numerous and valuable. The great coal-field of Scotland extends, with little interruption, from the eastern to the western coast. The most valuable part of this field is situated on the north and south sides of the Forth, about the average breadth of ten or twelve miles on each side, and on the north and south sides of the Clyde, ranging through Renfrewshire, part of Lanarkshire, and the north of Ayrshire. Detached coalfields have also been found in various other parts of Scotland. Lime is very generally diffused throughout the country. Iron abounds in many parts, particularly in the coal-field. Lead-mines are wrought to a great extent at Leadhills and Wanlockhead, in Dumfries-shire. In the soil which covers these fields, particles of gold have occasionally been found; copper-ore is found at Blair Logie, Airthrie, and at Fetlar, in Orkney; antimony at Langholm; manganese in the neighbourhood of Aberdeen; silver has been wrought at Alva in Stirlingshire, in Clackmannanshire, and at Leadhills in Lanarkshire; there are extensive slate

quarries in Aberdeenshire, Argyleshire, Perthshire, and Peebles-shire; marble is found in Argyleshire, Sutherland, and the Hebrides; sand-stone abounds generally throughout the country; and granite, and other primitive rocks, within the limits of the Grampians.

MINERAL SPRINGS.-There are numerous medicinal mineral springs in various parts of Scotland. "The most remarkable of these are the sulphurous waters of Strathpeffer, near Dingwall, Ross-shire; Muirtown, in the same neighbourhood; Moffat, in Dumfries-shire; and St. Bernard's, at Stockbridge, a suburb of Edinburgh: the chalybeates of Hartfell, near Moffat; Vicar's Bridge, near Dollar, Stirlingshire; and Bonnington, near Edinburgh: the saline waters of Dunblane, near Stirling; Airthrie, also near Stirling; Pitcaithly, near Perth ; and Innerleithen, near Peebles. At St. Catherine's, in the parish of Libberton, near Edinburgh, there is a spring which yields asphaltum in considerable quantities.'

* יי

CLIMATE. The climate of Scotland is extremely variable. Owing to its insular situation, however, neither the cold in winter, nor the heat in summer, is so intense as in similar latitudes on the continent. The annual average temperature may be estimated at from 44° to 47° of Fahrenheit. The quantity of rain which falls on the east coast of Scotland, varies from 22 to 26 inches, while on the west coast, and in the Hebrides, it ranges from 35 to 46 inches. The average number of days, in which either rain or snow falls in parts situated on the west coast, is about 200, on the east coast about 145. The winds are more variable than in England, and more violent, especially about the equinoxes. Westerly winds generally prevail, especially during autumn, and the early part of winter, but north-east winds are prevalent and severe during spring and the early part of summer.

AGRICULTURE.-The soils of the various districts of Scotland are exceedingly diversified. The general average is inferior to that of England, although many of the valleys are highly productive. In Berwickshire, the Lothians,

* Malte Brun and Balbi Abridged. Second Edition. Edin. 1844.

Clydesdale, Fifeshire, the Carses of Stirling, Falkirk, and now particularly in the Carse of Gowrie, Strathearn, Strathmore, and Moray, there are tracts of land not inferior to any in the empire. The inferiority of the climate and soil, as compared with England, is exhibited by contrasting the phenomena of vegetation in the two countries. Notwithstanding the very advanced state of agriculture in many districts of Scotland, the crops are not reaped with the same certainty as in England, nor do the ordinary kinds of grain arrive at the same perfection. Thus, although Scotch and English barley may be of the same weight, the former does not bring so high a price; it contains less saccharine matter, and does not yield so large a quantity of malt. Various fruits, also, which ripen in the one country, seldom arrive at maturity in the other, and never reach the same perfection; while different berries acquire in Scotland somewhat of that delicious flavour which distinguishes them in still higher parallels.

ANIMAL KINGDOM.-The domestic animals common to Scotland are the same as those of England, with some varieties in the breeds. Among the wild animals, the roe, and the red-deer are most worthy of notice. The golden eagle, and other birds of prey, are found in the mountainous districts, and the country abounds with all kinds of moor-game, partridges, and water-fowl.

FISHERIES.-There are many valuable fisheries in Scotland; the salmon fisheries, especially, produce a large revenue to their owners, but, during late years, they have experienced an extraordinary decline.

The herring fishery is carried on to a considerable extent, on the east coast of Scotland, and there are most productive and valuable fisheries of ling and cod, in the neighbourhood of the Shetland and Orkney Islands.

MANUFACTURES.-The manufactures of Scotland, especially those of linen and cotton, are extensive and flourishing, although they have suffered from the depression which has of late years affected the manufacturing towns in other quarters of the kingdom. The woollen manufacture, compared with that of England, is inconsiderable. The making

of steam-engines, and every other description of machinery, as also the building of steam-boats, both of wood and iron, are carried on to a great extent, especially on the Clyde ; and vast quantities of cast-iron goods are produced at Carron, Shotts, and other works.

COMMERCE. The commerce of Scotland has increased with astonishing rapidity, especially within a comparatively recent period, and a vast trade is now carried on, particularly with America and the West Indies. It is supposed, that since 1814, the increase in the principal manufactures and trades carried on in the country, and in the number of individuals employed in them, amounts to at least 30, or 35 per cent.

INTERNAL COMMUNICATION.-Carriage roads extend over every part of the country; and "in consequence of the excellent materials which abound in all parts of Scotland, and of the greater skill and science of Scottish trustees and surveyors, the turnpike-roads in Scotland are superior to those in England."* The irregularity of surface is not favourable to artificial inland navigation. Among the most important Canals are the Caledonian Canal, connecting the Lakes Ness, Oich, and Lochy, with the Beauly Firth on the north, and with Loch Eil on the south; the Forth and Clyde or Great Canal, extending from the Firth of Forth at Grangemouth, to Bowling Bay on the Firth of Clyde; and the Union Canal, commencing at Edinburgh, and terminating in the Great Canal at Port Downie near Falkirk. Besides these, there are several others which may be noticed in describing the localities through which they pass. Among the Railways of Scotland, the most important is that between Edinburgh and Glasgow. There are many other undertakings of this kind completed or in progress, but limited space prevents our noticing them more particularly.

REVENUE. The increase in the revenue has fully kept pace with the increasing prosperity of the country. At the period of the Union, the revenue amounted only to £110,696; in 1788, it was £1,099,148; in 1813, (when the Income Tax

* Sir H. Parnell on Roads, p. 313.

was at its height,) it amounted to £4,204,097; in 1831, notwithstanding the repeal of the Income Tax, and many other taxes, the gross revenue amounted to £5,254,624; and in 1840, although there was a farther reduction of taxation, it amounted to £5,231,727. The returns since this period, with the exception of the year 1842, have continued to exhibit a progressive increase in amount.

CONSTITUTION.-Under the Reform Act of 1832, Scotland returns fifty-three members to the Imperial Parliament, of whom thirty are for the shires, and twenty-three for the cities, boroughs, and towns; twenty-seven counties return one member each, and the counties of Elgin and Nairn, Ross and Cromarty, and Clackmannan and Kinross, are combined in pairs, each of which returns one member. Of the cities, boroughs, and towns-seventy-six in numberEdinburgh and Glasgow return two members each; Aberdeen, Paisley, Dundee, Greenock, and Perth, one each; the remaining burghs and towns are combined into sets or districts, each set, jointly, sending one member. The Scottish Peers choose sixteen of their number to represent them in the House of Lords. These representative Peers, like the Commoners, hold their seats for only one Parliament.

RELIGIOUS INSTITUTIONS.-Scotland is divided into 1023 parishes, (including parishes quoad sacra,) each of which is provided with one minister, or, in a few instances in towns, with two. The number of parishes, quoad sacra, has, however, been increased of late. The stipends of the endowed clergy, with the glebe and manse, probably average from £260 to £300 a year. The government of the Church is vested in kirk-sessions, presbyteries, synods, and the General Assembly. The number of churches belonging to Dissenters, of all denominations, amounts to 1500, besides a considerable number of missionary stations. Of this number about 730 belong to the Free Church of Scotland, which separated from the Establishment in 1843. The incomes of the Dissenting clergy are wholly derived from their congregations; they average, probably, from £120 to £130 a year, including a house and garden. In many cases, however, the income is considerably larger.