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this is nearly equally true, whether it be characterized by depression, languor, and pass. iveness, or by extreme excitement and violence. The latter are the features by which it is generally recognized, and which have justified the name by which it is generally known. The similarity to ordinary frenzy is great: there is the same watchfulness, fury, incoherence, the same vitiation of the secretions, and emaciation; and the chief differences between these affections consist in puerperal insanity being invariably traceable to disturbance of the circulation, or to animal poisoning, and in the short duration of the great majority of cases. The prognosis is in fact, so favorable, recourse to seclusion in an asylum so painful, that it has been proposed to treat all such cases at home, or that a distinct hospital or sanatorium should be established exclusively for them. When it is stated that a physical cause may be detected in the puerperal condition, this must not be construed as excluding the psychical elements which enter into the production of all such affections. Thus, it was found by Macdonald, that of 66 cases, only 6 could be attributed to a purely physical origin; and that in the majority, fright, or anxiety, or anger had formed the last or principal of that series of conditions which culminated in alienation. It not merely affects feeble and hysterical females more than others, but in a marked manner those belonging to tainted families. Of 66 patients in the Bloomingdale asylum, 17 labored under a hereditary tendency to mental disease. As connected with this point, it may be mentioned that unmarried are more liable to the disease than married women, in the proportion of 11 to 2. This great disparity may partly be explained by the fact that the fallen and unfortunate are, more than any other class of females, compelled to seek shelter in those institutions from which such statistics are obtained.-Reed on Treatment of Puerperal Insanity; Marcé, Folie des Femmes Enceintes ; Barker, The Puerperal Diseases.

PUERTO BELLO, a small decayed seaport t. cf the United States of Colombia, on the northern shore of the isthmus of Panama, and 40 m. n. of the town of that name. It is surrounded by mountains, has an excellent harbor, is very unhealthy, and has fallen into decay since 1739, when it was stormed by admiral Vernon, during the war between England and Spain. Pop. 3,500.

PUERTO-CABELLO, or PORTO-CABELLO, a t. of Venezuela, in the province of Caracas, 78 m. w. from Caracas. It stands on an island in the Golfo Triste, separated from the mainland by a channel so narrow as to be crossed by a bridge. The situation is very unhealthy, but the harbor is safe and commodious; its imports in 1877 amounted to £1,171,522: exports, £1,535,757. Puerto-Cabello is the port of Valencia, which is about 20 m. inland. Pop. '81, 10,145.

PUERTO DE SANTA MARI'A (usually called EL PUERTO, the port), a seaport of Spain, in the modern province of Cadiz, stands at the mouth of the Guadalete, in a most fertile district, on the bay of Cadiz, 6 m. n.e. of the city of that name, and 9 m. by railway 8.w. of Xeres. Suspension-bridges cross the Guadalete and the Rio de S. Pedro. The mouth of the Guadalete forms the harbor, but the bar is dangerous and much neglected. Puerto de Santa Maria, a pleasant and well-built town, resembling Cadiz in its houses, and containing only one long and handsome street, while the others are narrow and illpaved, is the port for the shipment of Xeres wines. The wines are lodged in numerous bodegas, or wine-stores, lofty buildings built with thick walls and narrow windows, in order to secure an even temperature inside. This town vies with Cadiz and San Lucar as a wine-exporting place; the principal exporting houses are English or French. The bull-fights which take place here in May are among the most famous in the country. Steamers ply frequently between this town and Cadiz, and Puerto de Santa Maria supplies that city with drinking-water at a cost of several thousand pounds a year. Pop. 22,278.

PUERTO PRINCIPÉ, SANTA MARIA DE, an important inland town, in the e. of the island of Cuba, about 325 m. e.s.e of Havana, and 45 m. s.w. of its port, Las Nuevitas, with which it is connected by railway. Pop. 30,000.

PUERTO RICO, an island in the West Indies, belonging to Spain, is one of the Greater Antilles, and lies e. of Hayti or St. Domingo, lat. 17° 55'-18° 30′ n., long. 65° 39′-67° 11' w. It is in size somewhat less than Jamaica, being fully 100 m. from e. to w., 40 m. from n. to s., and closely resembling a rectangle in shape. The island is traversed from e. to w. by a range of mountains, 1500 ft. in average height, though rising in one peak to 3,678 ft. above the sea. From the base of the mountains, rich alluvial tracts extend to the sea, and there are numerous well-wooded and abundantly watered valleys. The soil is remarkably fertile. The principal crops are sugar, coffee, and tobacco of the finest quality, and cotton remarkable for its length of fiber, tenacity, and whiteness. Cattle and sheep are extensively reared, of a quality superior to any others in the West Indies. The imports consist of cotton, woolen, linen, silk, and embroidered goods, metals, hardware, and provisions, as ale, porter, fruits, wines, etc. The exports are sugar, tobacco, coffee, cotton, molasses, rum, hides, and cattle. The chief ports are San Juan, commonly called Puerto Rico, in the n.e., Ponce in the s. w., and Mayaguez in the west. Puerto Rico is one of the coolest and healthiest places in the West Indies. Area, 3,600 sq.m.; pop. '80, 754,300, of whom, 350,000 are whites. Of the colored race, 20,000 were still slaves in 1871. The value of the annual exports is over £2,000,000; of

the imports, £2,500,000. In 1884, over 79,730 tons of sugar and 17,070 tons of coffee were exported. The trade is mainly with Britain, but owing to duties and port charges, it is carried on in Spanish bottoms.

The frequent changes in the executive government of Puerto Rico do not appear to affect its commercial stability. The commerce of the island is almost wholly in the hands of foreigners and Spaniards from the peninsula. The preliminary act of emanci pation, which came into operation at the beginning of 1871, decreased the number of slaves by 100,000. The slave-trade was already extinct; and in 1873 slavery was entirely swept away. There is a unanimous feeling against any immigration of laborers, whether Chinese, coolies, or others. A deep-sea cable now unites Puerto Rico with Europe, America, and the other Antilles; railways, irrigation, drainage, etc., are still things in embryo. It is remarkable that, notwithstanding the fertility and healthiness of Puerto Rico, the poverty of the island flora and fauna is very great; there are hardly any flowers, birds, or wild animals.

PUFF-ADDER, Clotho arietans, a serpent of the family viperide, having a short and broad flat head, with scales so sharply keeled as to end in a kind of spine. It is one of the most venomous and dangerous serpents of s. Africa. It attains a length of four or almost five ft., and is thick in proportion to its length, often as thick as a man's arm. Its head is very broad; its tail suddenly tapered; its color brown, checkered with darkbrown and white; a reddish band between the eyes; the under parts paler than the upper. Its movements are generally slow, but it turns very quickly if approached from behind. Its usually creeps partially immersed in the sand of the s. African deserts, its head alone being completely raised above ground. When irritated it puffs out the upper part of its body, whence its name. The puff-adder is easily killed by the oil, or even by the juice of tobacco. Its poison is used by the Bosjesmans for their arrows. Africa produces several other species of clotho, similar in their habits to the puff-adder, and almost equally dangerous.

S.

PUFFBALL Lycoperdon, a Linnæan genus of fungi, now divided into many genera, belonging to the section gasteromycetes, and to the tribe trichospermi. They mostly grow on the ground, and are roundish, generally without a stem, at first firm and fleshy, but afterward powdery within; the powder consisting of the spores, among which are many fine filaments, loosely filling the interior of the peridium, or external membrane. The peridium finally bursts at the top, to allow the escape of the spores, which issue from it as very fine dust. Some of the species are common everywhere. Most of them affect rather dry soils, and some are found only in heaths and sandy soils. The most common British species is L. gemmatum, generally from one to two and a half in. in diameter, with a warty and mealy surface. The largest British species, the GIANT PUFFBALL (L. giganteum), is often many feet in circumference, and filled with a loathsome pulpy mass, when young; but in its mature state, its contents are so dry and spongy that they have often been used for stanching wounds. Their fumes, when burned, have not only the power of stupyfying bees, for which they are sometimes used, in order to the removal of the honey, but have been used as an anæsthetic instead of chloroform. The same properties belong also to other species. Some of them, in a young state, are used in some countries as food, and none of them is known to be poisonous.

PUFF-BIRD. See BARBET.

PUFFENDORF, SAMUEL, son of a Lutheran clergyman, was b. in 1632 at Chemnitz, in Saxony. He received the early part of his education at Grimma; whence he removed to the university of Leipsic. There he studied theology for several years. In 1656 he went to the university of Jena, where he seems to have devoted himself at first chiefly to mathematics, and subsequently to the study of the Law of Nature, as he, and others who have treated on the same subject, have termed the law which regulates the duties of men to one another, independent of the mutual obligation which is enforced by political government, or by revelation of divine will. After quitting Jena, he was appointed tutor to the son of the Swedish ambassador at Copenhagen. Soon after he had received this appointment, a rupture having taken place between Denmark and Sweden, Puffendorf was detained as a prisoner in the Danish capital. The power of his mind here showed itself in a remarkable manner. Deprived of books and of society, he threw himself vigorously into meditating on what he had formerly read in the treatise of Grotius, De Jure Belli et Pacis, and in the writings of Hobbes on the principles of general law. The result was the production of the Elementa Jurisprudentiæ Univer Balis-a work which was the foundation of its author's fortune. It was dedicated to the elector Palatine; and by this prince, Puffendorf was appointed to the professorship of the law of nature and nations at the university of Heidelberg. He now gave his attention to the tissue of absurdities which existed in the constitution of the Germanic empire. As was to have been expected, the work (De Statu Reipublicæ Germanica, 1667), in which he exposed the defects of the system, raised a storm of controversy. Austria was especially furious. Puffendorf had taken care to publish it under a pseudonym-that of Severinus a Mozambano, but still, to avoid the possible consequences, he accepted an invitation from Charles XI. of Sweden, in 1670, to become professor of the law of nations at Lund. During his residence there, he published the

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work on which his fame now principally rests, De Jure Naturæ et Gentium. He then removed to Stockholm, where the king of Sweden made him his historiographer, with the dignity of a counselor of state. In his official character, he published a very uninteresting history of Sweden, from the expedition of Gustavus Adolphus into Germany to the death of queen Christine. In 1688, the elector of Brandenburg invited him to Berlin to write the history of his life and reign. Puffendorf accepted the invitation, and executed the required work in 19 dreary volumes. His intention was to have returned to Stockholm, but death overtook him at Berlin in 1694. Puffendorf lacked the genius to render the subjects on which he wrote generally interesting, but his intellectual power was nevertheless very considerable, and it appears to have throughout been honestly exercised with unflagging industry.—See Jenisch's Vita Pufendorfi in the Memoirs of the Academy of Stockholm, 1802.

PUFFIN, Fratercula, a genus of birds of the auk (q.v.) family, alcada, having the bill shorter than the head, very much compressed, its height at the base equal to its length, the ridge of the upper mandible as high as the top of the head, both mandibles arched, and transversely grooved. The bill gives to the birds of this genus a very extraordinary appearance. They have short legs, very short tail, and short wings; their legs are placed far back, and they sit very erect, like auks and penguins, resting not merely on the foot, but on the tarsus. Notwithstanding their shortness of wing, they fly rapidly, although they seem incapable of long-sustained flights. They swim and dive admirably. The best known and most widely distributed species is the COMMON PUFFIN (F. arctica), a native of the arctic and northern temperate regions, breeding not only in high northern latitudes, but as far s. as the coast of England, and migrating from the colder regions in winter, when it is to be found even on the coasts of Spain and Georgia. The puffin is a little larger than a pigeon; the forehead, crown, back of the head, a collar round the neck, the back, wings, and tail are black, the other parts of the plumage white. The puffin lays only a single egg, sometimes in a rabbit burrow, but more frequently in a borough of its own, which often extends three feet, and is not unfrequently curved; sometimes in deep fissures or crevices of cliffs. Great numbers congregate together, and their chosen breeding places are crowded with them. These are mostly on unfrequented islands and headlands, where there is some depth of soil. In some of them, the ground is covered by puffins, old and young, in thousands. The eggs are sought after by fowlers, and also the young birds, the flesh of which is used for food. The Scilly isles were held in the 14th c., under the king as earl of Cornwall, by Ranulph de Blancminster, for an annual payment of 6s. 8d., or 300 puffins at Michaelmas. The puffin is also known by the name coulterneb, and on the e. coast of Scotland it is familiarly called tammienorie. Their food consists of small crustaceans and fishes. Other species are found in different parts of the world; one in Kamtchatka, the Kurile islands, etc., with two silky tufts of long feathers on its head.-The name puffin is given in France to the shearwaters (q.v.), or puffin petrels, the genus puffinus of some ornithologists.

PUG, or PUG-DOG, a kind of dog much like the bull-dog in form, and in particular in its much abreviated muzzle. The nose is often a little turned up. The disposition is, however, extremely unlike that of the bull-dog, being characterized by great timidity and gentleness. Pug-dogs are only kept as pets. They are often very affectionate and good-natured, bearing without resentment the roughest handling to which children can subject them. They are all of small size. The common English pug is usually yellowish with a black snout, the tail firmly curled over the back. New breeds have of late been

introduced from China and Japan, interesting from their peculiar appearance, gentleness, and docility, with extremely short puggish muzzle; the Chinese breed very small, with smooth hair; the Japanese rather larger, with an exuberance of long soft hair and a very bushy tail. See illus., HORSES, DOGS, ETC., vol. VII., p. 632, fig. 15.

PUGATCHEFF, YEMELYAN, 1726-75; b. Russia; fought against the Prussians in the seven years' war, and in the campaign against Turkey in 1769. On his return he was put in prison for alleged revolutionary attempts. In personal appearance he very much resembled Peter III., and on his release he pretended to be that sovereign, and declared his purpose of reasserting his right to the crown and of dethroning Catharine II. He issued a proclamation in the name of Peter III. in 1773, and the same year the rebellion began. He succeeded in capturing the fortress of Yaitzkoi, attached to his cause the Raskolniks, whose religion he embraced, and won over several Finnish and Tartar tribes, and a large number of the peasantry. After the capture of many fortresses on the Ural and the Don, he marched against Moscow, but was sold by some of his companions for 100,000 rubles. His insurrection is said to have cost 100,000 lives.

PUGET, PIERRE, 1622-94; b. France; in youth a wood-carver on decorated ships; at 17 went to Italy, became a painter and attracted attention in Rome, but in 1643 was in Marseilles carving on ships the sculptured figures that adorned the high poops of the war-ships of those days. In 1652 he went to Rome with a priest commissioned to do some important architectural work for Anne of Austria, and took up the study of architecture. Returning to Marseilles in 1656, he designed a portal for the hotel de ville at Toulon, which established his reputation both as architect and sculptor-the caryatides exhibiting an originality and power that won him the sobriquet of the Michael Angelo of