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year, academician. He was knighted in 1822, when George IV. visited Scotland, and shortly after was appointed king's limner for Scotland. He died at Edinburgh on July 8, 1823. Raeburn's style was modeled in a great degree on that of Reynolds-he aimeď, like him, in his pictures to produce breadth-which is the effect obtained by massing together and keeping as far as possible the lights distinct from the shadows, and making them respectively effective, in place of dividing and mixing them up all over the picture: but he carried out this principle in a manner and with a feeling peculiarly his own. He never attempted, by thick impasto and semi-transparent painting, to produce texture and luminous effect, but adopted the opposite mode of painting in a low tone with a sharp touch, working his colors with little admixture of any unctuous medium. In his portraits of men, in particular, he gives the characteristic expression in a simple but decided and effective manner. His style has been thought by connoisseurs to resemble in many respects that of Velasquez. Raeburn's reputation was very high in his lifetime, and it is still rising, his pictures being now much sought after. Among the notable personages who sat to Raeburn for their portraits were sir David Baird, sir Walter Scott, Henry Mackenzie, Neil Gow, Harry Erskine, Dugald Stewart, prof. Playfair, Francis Jeffrey, Henry Cockburn, and many Scottish nobles. An exhibition of his works was held at Edinburgh in 1876.

RAFFAELLE. See RAPHAEL.

RAFFLES, THOMAS, D.D., LL.D., 1788-1863; b. London; studied theology at Homerton college; in 1809 settled as pastor of the Independent church at Hammersmith, and in 1812 as successor of the gifted Thomas Spencer at Great George street chapel, Liverpool. He resigned his charge in 1860. He was eminent among the Independents as a theologian and preacher. He published The Life and Ministry of the Late Thomas Spencer, which passed through many editions; Letters during a Tour through some parts of France, Savoy, Switzerland, Germany, and the Netherlands; Lectures on Christian Faith and Practice; and many hymns.

RAFFLES, Sir THOMAS STAMFORD, a distinguished traveler and naturalist, was the son of a captain in the West India trade, and was b. at sea, off port Morant in Jamaica, on July 5, 1781. His first appointment was to a clerkship in the East India house, Having attracted the notice of his superiors by his talents and industry, he received a permanent appointment in the office. In 1805 the court of directors determined on sending out an establishment to Penang or Prince of Wales' island, and young Raffles was appointed assistant-secretary. He arrived at Penang in September of the same year; and having studied the Malay language with great diligence during the voyage, he was enabled to enter upon his duties with efficiency on his arrival. He continued his study of the Malay and other eastern languages, in which he made considerable progress, Eventually Raffles was made principal secretary. In 1808 he made a voyage to Malacca, where he had the opportunity of mixing with Javanese, Amboynians, Borneans, Papuans, Cochin-Chinese, and Chinese proper. With respect to Malacca itself, he collected much interesting information. In 1811, when it was resolved by the English government to take possession of Java, then belonging to the Dutch, it was arranged that Mr. Raffles should accompany the expedition as secretary to the governor-general, lord Minto, who was himself to take the chief command. After some hard fighting the troops took posses sion of the island. Mr. Raffles received the appointment of lieutenant-governor of Java and its dependencies; and, upon the departure of lord Minto, took upon himself the entire administration of the newly-acquired territory. Much had still to be done in the way of conciliating the native princes and chiefs to the British rule. He had to appoint British residents at several of the native courts, and to frame rules and regulations for their conduct. He ordered a general survey to be made of the whole island, the reading of which, as well as of all the reports connected with that and other things, occupied a considerable part of his time. By frequent personal interviews with the natives also he sought to become acquainted with their manners and character, and to make such regulations as would be for their best interests, both morally and materially. While engaged in this career of usefulness his health gave way; and in 1816 he returned to England, stopping by the way at St. Helena, where he had an interview with Napoleon. On his arrival in England he wrote his well-known History of Java, published in two volumes 4to in 1817, in which year he received the honor of knighthood. Java having by this time been restored to the Dutch, sir Stamford Raffles was appointed lieutenantgovernor of Bencoolen, a settlement upon the coast of Sumatra, where he landed in March, 1818. In the latter part of that year he was called to Calcutta, on a visit of business, and instead of returning directly to Bencoolen, was sent to form a new settlement at Singapore. Here he remained for some months, and then again returned to Bencoolen, where he continued to discharge the duties of lieutenant-governor until Feb., 1824. when he was compelled by ill-health to return to England. The vessel in which he set sail took fire, the crew and passengers escaping with difficulty in the boats. By this accident sir Stamford Raffles lost the greatest part of his effects, including a fine collection of natural history, and other things, valued at about £20,000. After his arrival in England he lived to carry out what had been one of his favorite projects-namely, the formation of the zoological society of London, of which he was named president, and

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to the interests of which he devoted himself to the time of his death. This took place on July 5, 1826.

RAFFLESIA, a remarkable genus of plants belonging to the small natural order rafflesiacea, an order composed entirely of parasitic plants, which consist merely of a flower, and form part of the rhizogens (q.v.) of Lindley. The rafflesiacea are natives partly of the Indian islands and partly of South America. The plants of the genus rafflesia have neither stalk nor leaves, but are mere flowers seated upon the roots of species of cissus, making their appearance at first as a hemispherical swelling of the bark of the root, and, after the bark has broken, rising up in the form of a head of cabbage, whilst the perianth is covered with irabricated bractea, which are more or less recurved after it has opened. The perianth is thick, fleshy, and 5-partite. The germen is inferior, and contains many ovules; and the anthers, which are numerous, are seated under the revolute margin of the top of the style column. After the flower has expanded, it diffuses a carrion-like smell, that even attracts flies, and induces them to deposit their eggs. The largest and first discovered species, R. Arnoldi, was discovered in 1818 in Sumatra by Dr. Arnold, and was sent to the eminent botanist, Robert Brown, by sir Thomas Stamford Raffles, the British governor in Sumatra. Its flower measures fully 3 ft. in diameter, is capable of containing almost two gallons of fluid, sometimes weighis 10 lbs., and is the largest of all known flowers. A smaller species, R. patma, whose flowers are 16 in. to 2 ft. in diameter, is highly prized by the Javanese as a medicine, for its strong styptic powers. R. Horsfieldii, another Javanese species, is stili smaller, its flowers being only 3 in. broad.

RAFN, KARL CHRISTIAN, a celebrated Danish critic and archæologist, was b. at Brahesborg, in the island of Fünen, Jan. 16, 1796, and educated at the university of Copenhagen, of which he was appointed sub-librarian in 1821. Even while a boy at the gymnasium of Odense, he was distinguished by his fondness for the old Norse literature and language, and when he became officially connected with the university, he undertook a general revision of all the Icelandic and old Norse MSS. preserved there. It is to Rafn's unwearied exertions that Denmark owes the foundation (1825) of the " Society for Northern Antiquities," whose principal object is the publication and criticism of all documents that can throw light on the subject of old Norse literature. To this single end Rafn devoted his whole life. As secretary of this society he edited and published a great many ancient Scandinavian MSS., occupying about 70 volumes. Among his numerous important works, we may mention a Danish translation of Norse Mythic and Romantic Sagas (3 vols., 2d ed. 1829-30); an edition (from a manuscript), with philologicocritical remarks, of Ragnar Lodbrog's death-song, under the title of Krákumál, seu Epicedium Ragnaris Lodbroci, Regis Dania (Copenh. 1826); a complete collection of the Norse sagas (many of these MSS. being hitherto unedited) entitled Fornaldar-Sögur Nordlanda (Copenh. 3 vols., 1829-30); and the Füreyinga-Saga (1832) in Icelandic, with translations in Danish and Faroese, and a critical apparatus. But his most widelyknown and perhaps his most interesting work is his Antiquitates Americana, seu Scrip tores Septentrionales Rerum Ante-Columbianarum in America (Copenh. 1837), in which, from a critical examination of numerous geographical, nautical, and astronomical data in certain Old Norse MSS., he comes to the conclusion that America was discovered by Norsemen in the 10th c., 400 years before Columbus was born; and that from the 11th to the 14th century a large tract of the North American coast had been visited and even partially colonized as far s. as Rhode Island and Massachusetts-a conclusion, it may be added, the probability of which has been confirmed in several important points by recent topographico-antiquarian researches in these states. The subject was followed up by him and Finn Magnussen in their Historical Monuments of Greenland (3 vols., Copenh. 1838-45). Another very important work to which Rafn furnished a great part of the text, carefully worked up from MSS., and a Danish translation of the first three and the 11th books in parallel columns, is the great collection of historical sagas representing events that took place out of Iceland, and entitled Forumanna Sögur (12 vols., Copenh. 1828, et seq.). He has also had a great share in drawing up and editing the Icelandic MSS. relating to the history of Russia and other eastern countries, and of which two volumes appeared at Copenhagen in 1850-52, under the title of Antiquités Russes. Rafn died at Copenhagen, Oct. 20, 1864.

RAFTERS, the sloping timbers of a roof (q.v.) which meet in an angle at the ridge, and on which rest the laths or boarding which carry the tiles or slates.

RAGGED SCHOOLS. The ragged school, as distinct from the certified industrial school, is a voluntary agency providing education for destitute children, and so preventing them from falling into vagrancy and crime. Vagrant children, and those guilty of slight offenses, are provided for in the certified industrial school; but the two institu tions are frequently combined. See article INDUSTRIAL SCHOOLS. The movement which established ragged schools was almost simultaneous with that which instituted reformatories. John Pounds, a poor shoemaker at Portsmouth, has the honor of originating the idea. For 20 years, up to the time of his death in 1839, he gathered the ragged children of the district round him as he sat at work. They came freely, and were taught gratuitously. The success attending his humble efforts soon led many more influential friends of the "outcasts" to engage in the same work. In 1838 London had a ragged

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Sunday-school, which eventually became a free day-school. Field Lane followed in 1843. But the first ragged feeding-school was opened in 1841 by sheriff Watson, in Aberdeen. In 1845 Dr. Robertson, not then aware of the existence of sheriff Watson's, opened a similar school in the Vennel, Edinburgh. Soon afterward Dr. Guthrie's famous Plea for Ragged Schools appeared, a work which gave an irresistible impetus to the movement, and caused the author to be generally regarded as the father of ragged schools. After this ragged schools spread over all the land, until there was scarcely a town of any importance that had not one or more. The recent education acts, however-that for England, 1870, and that for Scotland, 1872-introduced the principle of compulsory attendance at school; under this provision, a large number-especially in England-of such as were merely free day-schools have become public schools. But as the education acts make no provision for feeding the children, the managers of feedingschools find themselves compelled to continue their efforts. In places where the system has been efficiently conducted juvenile crime has sensibly diminished. The governor of the Edinburgh prison has stated frequently in his reports, that since the establishment of ragged schools, the number of young persons committed to prison has gradually decreased. It may be mentioned that in one large ragged feeding-school, where in the course of 10 years 4.000 children have been enrolled, only 7 deaths have occurred during the period of school attendance. The ragged schools do not receive government aid. The capitation grant of £2 10s., allowed by a privy council minute in 1856, was withdrawn in 1859.

RAGGEE, Eleusine corocana, an Indian grain (see ELEUSINE), very prolific, but perhaps the least nutritious of the cereals, although it is the chief food of the poorer classes in Mysore and on the Neilgherries. It is made into dark-brown cakes and porridge, which are described as very poor fare..

RAGHU is, in the legendary history of ancient India, the name of a celebrated king of Ayodhya. See OUDE. He belonged to the royal dynasty which derived its origin from the sun; and among his descendants is Râma (q.v.). See also the next article.

RAGHUVANS'A (from Raghu (q.v.) and cans'a, race or family, hence "the family of Raghu") is the title of one of the most celebrated poems of Sanskrit literature, attributed to the authorship of Kâlidâsa (q.v.). It consists of 19 sargas-i.e., sections or cantosand its subject-matter is the legerdary history of the kings of the solar race, beginning with that of Dilipa, the father of Raghu, and ending with that of Agnivarn'a. The text of the poem, with an excellent Latin translation of it, was published by prof. A. F. Stenzler (London, 1832); the text, with a prose interpretation in Sanskrit, by Pandits of the Sanskrit college of Calcutta (1831); and the text with the complete and important commentary of Mallinatha, by Giris'achandra Vidyâratna, one of the professors of the government Sanskrit college (Calcutta, 1852). Single cantos with the same commentary have also been published at Bombay and Madras,

RAGLAN, Lord, FITZROY JAMES HENRY SOMERSET, Field-marshal, G.C.B., eighth son of the fifth duke of Beaufort, was b. Sept. 30, 1788. He entered the army in his 16th year, and in 1807 served on the staff of the duke of Wellington in the expedition to Copenhagen. He went to the Peninsula as aid-de-camp to the duke, and in 1812 became his military secretary. As lord Fitzroy Somerset, his name became a household word. He was present at all the great actions of the Peninsular campaign which illus trate the career of the great commander. He was among the first to mount the breach at the storming of Badajoz, and it was to him that the governor gave up his sword. On the return of Napoleon from Elba, he served under the duke in Flanders, and lost his sword-arm in the crowning victory of Waterloo. The very next day he was seen practicing writing with his left hand! For his brilliant military services he was made K.C.B., and received orders from several foreign potentates. He was minister-plenipotentiary at Paris in 1815, and secretary to the French embassy from 1816 to 1819. The duke was appointed in 1819 master of the ordnance, and Raglan again became his secretary. In 1822 he went to the congress of Verona in attendance on the duke, who was the English plenipotentiary. In 1827 the duke was appointed commander-in-chief of the British army, and called Raglan to the horse-guards as his military secretary. This office he held until the death of his chief in Sept., 1852. He was then made master-gen, of the ordnance, and in October was called to the house of peers as baron Raglan of Raglan, in the co. of Monmouth. He had previously sat in the lower house during the parlia ments of 1818 and 1826 for the borough of Truro. While master-gen, of the ordnance, he was appointed, with the rank of gen. while so employed, commander of the English forces which were dispatched to Turkey in Feb., 1854. The allied armies of Britain and France, under Raglan and marshal St. Arnaud respectively, made good their landing in the Crimea. The victory of the Alma, the flank-march to Balaklava (q.v.), the cavalry charge which has made that place immortal, the sanguinary and desperate Infantry-battle of Inkermann (q. v.) (which obtained for Raglan the baton of field-marshal). and the siege of Sebastopol, are too well known to need description. Unfavorable com ments began to be made, as the campaign proceeded, upon Raglan's conduct of the war. During the winter, 1854-55, his soldiers suffered unspeakable privations, and hundreds perished in camp and on board transports for want of the food, clothing, and medicines which were in store, but could not be found in the confusion and mismanagement that

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prevailed. Supplies arrived; but the siege continued without much apparent success until June 18, when a general assault was ordered, and when Raglan's troops, as well as the French, received a terrible repulse. Raglan had been suffering from a slight attack of cholera, and the disaster of June 18 weighing upon his mind, he suddenly became worse, and died of exhaustion, June 28, 1855. His remains were brought to England. and buried in the family cemetery at Badminton. Raglan was an indefatigable and experienced administrator. He proved himself to be a skillful tactician, although it may be doubted whether he had the qualities of a great general. He was undeniably gifted with many qualities that shone with great luster in the field as well as in council. His demeanor in action was so calm that it excited the admiration of the French, and marshal St. Arnaud declared that his bravery rivaled that of antiquity. His courteous and noble bearing, his gentleness of temper and firmness of mind, and his constant worship of duty," invest his character with something of the chivalrous. See Kinglake's Invasion of the Crimea.

RAGMAN ROLL (ragman, a word of uncertain origin, used in ancient diplomatic language for an indenture or legal deed), the name given to the collection of instruments which record the acts of the fealty and homage performed by the Scottish nobility and gentry to Edward I. of England during his military progress through Scotland in 1296, and afterward at the parliament held at Berwick. The original instruments of homage under the seals of the parties were deposited in the royal treasury of England, and have almost entirely perished; but the roll in existence in the Tower preserves a record of them. Its contents were given in an abridged form in Prynne's Records, and afterward printed in extenso by the Bannatyne club in 1834. An especial value attaches to the Ragman Roll as containing the largest and most authentic enumeration extant of the nobility, barons, landholders, and burgesses, as well as of the clergy of Scotland, prior to the 14th c., and the only genuine statistical notices of Scotland of the period.

RAGOÛT (Fr. ragoûter, to revive the appetite; appears to be from Lat. re-ad-gustare), a name much less in use now than formerly, for a dish of stewed meat and vegetables, usually flavored with herbs and other condiments. It differs but little from the olla of the Spaniards, and the pilau of the Turks.

RAGS. Fragments of nearly all textile materials have now a commercial value; those of cotton, linen, and hempen cloths are used in the manufacture of paper (q.v.); and woolen and worsted rags are made available for respinning either alone or mixed with fresh wool, while the refuse is ground into powder, dyed various colors, and forms the material called flock, used by the paper-stainers to produce their ornamental flock-papers, The trade in rags is enormous. Linen and cotton rags to the extent of from 15.000 to 16,000 tons per annum, of the value of nearly £300,000, are now imported by British paper-makers, and perhaps quite as large a quantity is collected at home. The greatly increased use of esparto makes the import of rags of less cardinal importance than it used to be to the paper-makers of this country. See SHODDY; and RAG-TRADE.

RAG TRADE. This trade, even within the limits of a generation, has undergone extraordinary changes. Woolen rags, which some 30 years ago were all allowed to rot on the dunghill, save the very small quantity required for flock papers and stuffing saddlery, are now consumed, under the name of "shoddy," to a vast extent in the manufacture of the cheaper woolen cloths, more than 30,000 tons having been imported in 1872; and in the same year, probably a like quantity was obtained in Great Britain itself. Linen and cotton rags are, as is well known, nearly all consumed in the manufacture of paper; but of late years the demand for paper has increased at so great a rate, especially for the American and colonial markets, that rags can no longer be looked upon as the principal raw material from which it is made. It was stated by Mr. Rout ledge, to whom the country is mainly indebted for the successful introduction of esparto fiber, at a meeting of the London society of arts, in Dec., 1871, that rags were now used alone only for the paper of bank-notes, ledgers, and such-like special purposes, esparto fiber being even preferred as a material for printing-paper. Wood pulp is also largely used on the continent, as well as in America, to mix with rags for all kinds of papers, often forming as much as 70 per cent of their weight. For some time past the amount of cotton and linen rags annually imported into Great Britain has been below 20,000 tons; while the imports of esparto and other vegetable fiber reached, in 1880, the amount of 191,229 tons. Moreover, no less a quantity than 11,000 tons of rags and other papermaterial, but chiefly rags, were exported from British ports, nearly the whole of which went to the United States.

Unfortunately, there seems but too much reason to fear that the regular supply of esparto, as the staple material for paper, cannot be depended upon; and even though it could, rags will always be of great value for the better kinds. Mr. William Arnot, in a lecture delivered before the society of arts, London, in Dec., 1877, estimated the quantity of paper annually consumed in different countries as follows: In Russia, 1 lb. per head of the population; Spain. 14 lb.; Mexico and Central America, 2 lbs.; Italy and Austria, 5 lbs.; France, 7 lbs.; Germany, 8 lbs.; United States, 10 lbs.; and Britain, 114 lbs. Britain had 385 mills, producing annually 360,000 tons of paper, valued at £20,000,000. When the continent had more rags than it required, England and America had to import rags to keep their mills going. The state of matters is still the same as regards

the continent; but, in the meantime, the increased use of esparto appears to admit of England sending away as many rags as she imports. Most of the imported linen rags come from Germany and France. Cotton, flax, and jute waste from spinning-mills are all used for paper-making.

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It is believed that the home supply of linen and cotton rags might be largely increased by greater care in housekeeping economy. Mr. Herring, partner in a firm of paper-merchants, and author of several articles on this branch of industry, published in 1860 a "letter," addressed to clergymen and others, suggesting an organized plan for the attainment of this object. 'There are," he remarks, "more rags wasted, burned, or left to rot than would make our paper-manufacturers independent of all assistance from abroad." Whatever may have been the case in 1860, it is plain that, however carefully collected, all the rags produced in Great Britain would now be far short of meeting the demands of the paper-mills if no other material were used.

The managers of the ragged schools in London organized a rag-collecting brigade in 1862 for the systematic collection of the rags of the metropolis.

RAGU'LY, in heraldry, a term applied to an ordinary whose bounding lines are furnished with serrated projections.

RAGU'SA (Slav. Dubrovnik, Turk. Paprovnik), formerly an independent republic, now a decayed episcopal town and sea-port of Austria, in the crown land of Dalmatia, lies at the base and on the steep slopes of mount Sergio, 40 m. w.n.w. of Cattaro. Its higher streets communicate with its lower by means of flights of steps. It is surrounded on the land side by double walls, surmounted by old towers. Immediately s. of the town is a harbor, which admits only small vessels; but 2 m. w. is Gravosa, the proper harbor of Ragusa, and which offers secure and spacious accommodation to the largest vessels. The trade of Ragusa, which was once extensive and profitable, has sunk, and its inhabit ants, 6,000 in number (about a sixth of the former population), support themselves by the manufacture and export of oil (very excellent), soap, liquors, malmsey wine, silk, leather, and tobacco. Ragusa also carries on a considerable transit trade with Turkey by means of the Turkish caravans, about 200 of which-in all about 7,000 horses-visit the town annually.

Ragusa is supposed to have been founded in 656 by refugees from Old Ragusa (the ancient Epidaurus, situated 10 m. s.e.), which was at that time destroyed by a tribe of Slavonians. It formed itself, after the model of Venice, into an aristocratic republic, governed by a rector. In 1358 it placed itself under the protection of Hungary, and later it became tributary to the porte. Napoleon in 1808 abolished the republican government of Ragusa, and incorporated the town with the province of Dalmatia. After 1814 the town, together with the province, came into the possession of Austria.

RAGUSA, an old t. in the s. of Sicily, in the province of Syracuse, and 30 m. w.s.w. of the city of that name, stands on a narrow and steep ridge between two ravines, on the right bank of the Ragusa, and about 15 m. from the sea. In the cliffs below the walls and around the town ancient tombs of various shapes have been hollowed out. Ragusa is supposed to occupy the site of the ancient Hybla Minor. Pop. '82, 21,494, who manufacture cotton, woolen, and silk goods.

RAGWORT, the common English name of those species of Senecio (q.v.) in which the heads of flowers have a spreading ray, the involucre has small scales at the base, and the leaves are pinnatifid. The British species are large coarse weeds, with erect stem, and yellow flowers; one species, the COMMON RAGWORT (S. Jacobaa), a perennial, is too plentiful in many pastures. It is refused or disliked by horses, oxen, and sheep. It generally disappears from thoroughly drained land, at least after a little labor has been expended in grubbing up its roots. The fresh herbage has been used to dye wool green, but the color is not permanent.

BAG-STONE, an impure limestone, consisting chiefly of lime and silica, much used in Kent. It breaks up into pieces about the size of a brick, and is hard and flat-bedded. The name is also applied to the hard irregular rock which frequently overlies better building materials. Besides being used for building purposes, hones or sharpening stones for scythes and other large blades are made of it.

RAHDUNPUR', a large fortified t. of Hindustan, in a protected state of the same name, in the n.w. of Guzerat, about 150 m. n. w. of Baroda. The majority of the inhabitants, who are chiefly Rajputs and coolies, are engaged in agriculture; trade and manufactures, however, are carried on to some extent. Coarse cotton cloths-the staple manufacture-and grain, leather, and hides are exported. Pop. 15,000. The state of Rahdunpur, which is under British protection, has an area of 850 sq.m., and a pop. of 91,500. The climate, very hot during October and November, is delightful from December to April.

RAHU is, in Indian mythology, the demon who is imagined to be the cause of the eclipses of sun and moon. When, in consequence of the churning of the milk-sea, the gods had obtained the amr'ita, or beverage of immortality, they endeavored to appropriate it to their exclusive use; and in this attempt they had also succeeded, after a long struggle with their rivals, the Daityas, or demons, when Râhu, one of the latter, insinuating himself among the gods, obtained a portion of the amr'ita. Being detected by the sun and moon, his head was cut off by Vishn'u; but the amr'ita having reached his