Posen.

spirit even during the time of fermentation, in order to give the new wine the ripeness and strength which exporters require, and which the wine does not naturally attain till it has stood for some time; the proper color is also given by an ingredient known as jeropiga, which is a preparation of elderberries, molasses, raisin-juice, and spirit. It is an excess of this jeropiga in the inferior sorts of port which communicates to them the medicated odor so frequently noticed. The extreme "headiness" of port is chiefly due to the liberal admixture with spirit, and this is the case with all the sorts generally exported. From the time when port came into demand (about 1700, though it was known in England for a considerable time before this) down to 1826, its export was a monopoly in the hands of the English merchants, and the amount of wine produced increased, with tolerable steadiness, year after year till 1836, when it reached 38,459 pipes, valued at £1,122,500. The ultimate effect of this monopoly was to increase the price of port wine in England, and at the same time so to deteriorate its quality, that in course of time it became of less demand, and was gradually, to some extent, supplanted by southern French and other wines. Since 1836 it has fluctuated, being sometimes more and sometimes less than this figure; in 1850 the exportation reached 37,487 pipes, of which 25,400 were sent to Great Britain. Between 1876 and 1880 the exports to Great Britain ranged from 4,000,000 gallons to 3,000,000, and the value from £900,000 to £1,300,000.

PORUS, KING, in the time of Alexander the great, ruled over northern India, near the Hydaspes river. When Alexander invaded his country, he prepared to defend the passage of the stream; but the Grecian general crossed some distance above the Indian camp, and surprised and defeated successively Porus's son and the king himself. The captive monarch conducted himself with great dignity, and won the regard of Alexander, who treated him with much generosity.

PORY, JOHN, b. England, about 1570; d. previous to 1635; entered Gonvil_and Caius college 1587, made a translation of the Geographical History of Africa by John Leo, a Moor, called the only original authority for the state of n. and central Africa of that period; republished in Purchas's Pilgrimes. He was living in Paris in 1612, and 1619-21 was secretary to the colony at Jamestown, Va. On his return voyage to England he stopped at Plymouth, and visited the colony then recently arrived. He assisted Hakluyt in the preparation of his geography, and in 1623 came back as a commissioner from the privy council.

POSCHAREVATZ. See PASSAROWITZ.

POSEIDON. See NEPTUNE.

PO'SEN, a province of Prussia, bounded n. by Pomerania and east Prussia, e. by Poland, s. by Silesia, and w. by Brandenburg and Pomerania. Area 11,150 sq.m. Pop. at the close of 1880, 1,703,397. It is divided into the two governmental districts of Posen and Bromberg; and the principal towns are Posen, Bromberg, Lissa, Rawitsch, and Gnesen. The principal river is the Wartha, which traverses Posen from e. to w., and is navigable throughout the greater part of its course, as is also the smaller Netze. The country is almost everywhere level, and its surface extensively covered with bogs, ponds, and small lakes. The soil is on the whole fruitful, and the numerous swamps and forests which covered the land during its annexation to Poland have of late years been converted into rich meadow and good arable land, where cattle of superior quality are raised, and good crops of wheat, barley, oats, and flax are procured. The forests are extensive and productive, and contribute largely to the exports of the province, of which, however, the most important articles are corn, wool, tallow, hides, wax, and honey. With the exception of coal, which is obtained from beds near the town of Wronki, Posen has no mineral products. Good broad-cloth, linens, and lace are_manufactured in many of the. small country towns. Since the annexation of Posen to Prussia much has been done to supply the previous deficiency in regard to popular instruction; and there are now nine gymnasia, several normal and training schools, a seminary for priests, and upward of 2,000 burgher and national schools. The greater part of the population belongs to the Roman Catholic church, which is under the spiritual jurisdiction of the archbishop of Posen and Gnesen, while 74,000 of the remainder are Jews. The inhabitants may still be said to be Poles, more than 800,000 persons employing Polish as their mother-tongue. Posen formed an integral part of Poland till 1772, when, at the first partition of the Polish ter ritory, the districts n. of the Netze were given to Prussia. At the second and third partitions, which were made twenty years later, the remainder was incorporated in the Prussian kingdom under the name of South Prussia. In 1807 Posen was included in the duchy of Warsaw; but by the act of the congress of Vienna it was separated in 1815 from Poland, and reassigned to Prussia under the title of the grand duchy of Posen. In 1848 the Poles, who had never amalgamated with their new German compatriots, took advantage of the general political excitement of that period to organize an open rebellion, which gave the Prussian government considerable trouble, and was not put down till much blood had been spilt on both sides. On the cessation of disturbances the German citizens of the province demanded the incorporation of Posen with these Prussian states which were members of the German confederation, and the Berlin chambers gave their approval of the proposed measure in 1850: but on the subsidence of revolutionary sentiment in Germany the subject was dropped.

POSEN (Polish Poznan), the chief t. of the province of Posen, and a Prussian fortress of the first rank, is situated on the low and sandy banks of the Wartha, nearly 150 m. e. of Berlin. Pop. '71, 56,374; '80, 65,713-of whom not quite the half are Protestants, and toward 10,000 are Jews. Posen, which ranks as one of the most ancient cities of Poland, became the seat of a Christian bishop in the 10th century. Till 1296 it was the seat of the Polish dukes; and it was a member of the Hanseatic league during the middle ages, when it was an important trading mart between western Europe and the Slavonic lands bordering on Asia. At this time many German, English, and Scottish traders settled in Posen, which latterly fell into decay. It passed into the possession of Prussia in 1815. At the great fire of 1803, when many of the older parts of the town were destroyed, Posen lost the most striking features of its semi oriental style of architecture; but it still retains a certain picturesque character from the number of its church towers and lofty houses. Among its fifteen principal churches the most noteworthy are the cathedral, a recently restored and elaborately ornamented building, and St. Stanislaus, a splendid specimen of Italian architecture. Posen, which has been strongly fortified since 1828, is encircled by six suburbs. It is the see of an archbishop, the seat of the provincial gov ernment, and has a fine town-hall, two gymnasia, a public library with 20,000 volumes, training-schools for teachers of both sexes, a school for midwives, a theater, etc. Recent restorations and improvements have rendered it one of the pleasantest-looking towns in Prussia, and it can now boast of many fine regularly-built streets and squares, in which are situated the winter residences of many of the provincial Polish nobles. A considerable trade in wood, corn, wool, broadcloth, and linen is carried on here, principally by the Jews, and the annual fairs held in summer attract large crowds from all parts of the province. The chief manufactures of Posen are cloth, leather, carriages, copper vats and other vessels used in distilling, and tobacco; while there are likewise several breweries, distilleries, and sugar-refineries.

POSES PLASTIQUES (Fr. “statuesque attitudes"), equivalent to tableaux vivants (q.v). POSEY, a co. in extreme s. w. Indiana, drained by the Wabash and Ohio rivers, which divide it from Illinois and Kentucky; traversed by the Kentucky and South-eastern railroad; 430 sq.m.; pop. '80, 20,857-18,968 of American birth. The surface is hilly, but the bottom lands are very rich; tobacco, corn, wheat, oats, and grass are the chief products. There are factories making carriages, plows, and other agricultural tools. Co. seat, Vernon.

POSEY, THOMAS, 1750-1818; b. Va.; settled in West Virginia in 1769. He became a quartermaster in lord Dunmore's army, and was engaged in the battle with the Indians at Point Pleasant in Oct., 1774. The next year he assisted in the defeat of Dunmore at Gwyn's island. He afterward joined Morgan's riflemen, and fought with a force of British light infantry at Piscataway, N. J. Entering the army under Gates, he was at the battles of Bemis heights and Stillwater in 1777, and the same year conducted an expedition against the Indians. In 1779 he commanded a battalion under Wayne, and was prominent at the assault of Stony Point. He served with Wayne till the evacuation of Savannah, and was at the surrender of Cornwallis. He was appointed brig.gen. in 1793, and removing to Kentucky, was state senator, lieut.gov., and maj.gen. of militia. He was U. S. senator from Louisiana, 1812-13, gov. of the Indian territory, 1813-16, when he became commissioner of Indian affairs.

POSIDONIUS, b. Syria, B.c. 2d c.; came to Rome in the consulship of Marcus Marcellus, B. C. 51, and died, according to Lucian, at the age of 84. He was a pupil of Panatius, whom he succeeded as the leader of the stoics; and was the teacher of Cicero, who frequently speaks of him with praise. Pompey visited him B. c. 67, at Rhodes, where the greater part of his life was passed, and again B.C. 62, after the close of the Mithridatic war; and Posidonius wrote a history of the wars of Pompey. Besides his philosophical works, he wrote treatises on history, astronomy, and geography, none of which are extant, with the exception of their titles, and the quotations from them preserved by Cicero, Strabo, and others. He wrote Meteorologica, and Cicero alludes to his artificial sphere, which represented the motion of the heavens. He traveled much for the purpose of collecting information for his works, and Plutarch has taken from him the materials of several of the "lives," notably that of Caius Marius, whom Posidonius personally knew. He was a stricter stoic than Panætius, and maintained that pain was not an evil.

POSILIPO, a mountain on the n.w. of Naples, close by the city, remarkable for the tunnel known as the Grotta di Posilipo, through which the road from Naples to Pozzuoli (anc. Puteoli) passes. The grotto is in some places 70 ft. high, and 21 ft. wide, and is 2.244 ft. long. It is very ancient. Seneca mentions it as the Crypta Neapolitana. Strabo assigns its construction to M. Cocceius Nerva, superintendent of aqueducts in the time of the emperor Tiberius. Above the eastern archway of the grotto is the so-called "tomb of Virgil.' At the base of the hill of Posilipo anciently stood the poet's villa, in which he composed the Eclogues and Georgics, if not also the Eneid. During the middle ages, the common people firmly believed the grotto to be the work of the poet, whom they regarded as a great magician.

POSITIVE PHILOSOPHY. See COMTE: POSITIVISM.

POSITIVE PRINTING, in photography. This term is used to designate that process by which impressions from a negative (q.v.) are produced upon suitably prepared paper. The term, however, does not belong exclusively to positives produced on paper, and intended to be viewed by reflected light, since transparent positives for examination by transmitted light are produced on glass. The means by which this kind of positives is obtained are so exactly similar to the dry negative collodion process, that a detailed notice thereof is hardly necessary in the present article, which will be confined exclusively to the means of obtaining positive proofs on paper.

Regarding, then, the negative, not so much a picture as the means of producing one, the first thing which presents itself for notice is the paper. This may be either German or French, known in the markets under the respective names of saxe and rive. They are used in the simply salted condition, or more generally in the salted and albuminized state, the purpose of the albuminizing being to prevent the chemicals used in the process from sinking into the paper, whereby the delicate details of the negative would become defective on the surface. The process is briefly as follows: float the paper on the sa'ting bath from one to five minutes; drain for one minute; hang up to dry Float the paper on the exciting bath from five to ten minutes, according to its strength; drain, and hang up to dry. Expose in a pressure-frame under a negative. The neces sary depth of impression being obtained (a point only to be determined by experience), wash the print in common water. Some operators at this stage immerse the print in a bath containing one per cent. of ammonia for two or three minutes. This is by no means absolutely necessary; should it, however, be done. it should be afterward washed in water for five or ten minutes; after which it is immersed in the toning bath from one to ten minutes, or until the desired tone be obtained; it is then washed in several changes of water, preparatory to immersion in the fixing bath. This last operation occupies from fifteen to thirty minutes, according to the strength of the fixing solution, and the depth to which the printing has been carried. The print is then copiously washed in many changes of water, and hung up to dry.

The baths referred to above are composed as follows: salting bath, water, one ounce; albumen, 4 ounces; good common salt, 48 grains. Exciting bath, nitrate of silver, 240 grains; water, 4 ounces; glacial acetic acid, half a dram. Toning bath, chloride of gold, 4 grains; water, 24 ounces; carbonate soda, 100 grains. Fixing bath, hyposulphite of soda, 4 ounces; water, 1 pint.

Printing in carbon, lamp-black, or other impalpable powder, which doubts as to the stability of silver prints had long made a desideratum, has recently been brought to a considerable degree of perfection. It is based on the discovery by Mungo Ponton, that a mixture of gelatine and bichromate of potass is rendered insoluble by the action of light, and on the experiments of Poitevin, Fargier and Blair. There are three typical processes -the autotype, Woodburytype, and lichtdruck. The autotype consists in coating a sheet of prepared paper with a mixture of gelatine, bichromate of potass, and carbon, and when dry, exposing it under a negative. On removal from the printing frame, the pig ment is moistened with water, and laid, prepared side down, on a support of glass, zinc, or shellac-coated paper, to which a gentle pressure makes it adhere. The paper is then removed, and the print is developed by immersion in warm water, which dissolves the unaltered gelatine, but cannot touch the parts rendered insoluble by the light which has passed through the negative. The developed print is again transferred to paper, when the high lights are found to consist of those parts where the gelatine has been completely dissolved, the middle tints of the parts less soluble, and the shadows of the parts quite insoluble. In the Woodburytype, a bichromated gelatine film, but without carbon, is prepared, exposed, and developed in a somewhat similar way, but dried without being transferred to paper, the result being a sheet of gelatine with a picture in relief. This is laid on a plate of soft metal, and covered with a plate of steel, and the whole subjected to the action of a hydraulic press, by which the soft metal takes the impression of the gelatine film. In printing from the plate so produced, an ink, consisting of carbon and gelatine, is poured on the center, the paper is laid on the ink, and the pressure of a suitable press applied, whereby the ink is squeezed into the shadows and half-tones, and the high lights are left clean, the result being a really fine print. Glass may be used instead of paper, with very fine results.-Lichtdruck is a method of printing photographs in an ordinary lithographic press, with printer's ink, from gelatine films prepared on the same principle as the Woodbury tissue, except that the soluble gelatine is not washed away. The film is attached to a thick plate of glass fixed in the press, and when sponged over, the soluble parts absorb water, and so are prevented from taking on ink, while the insoluble portions remain dry, and the ink adheres to them.

POSITIVISM, a scheme of philosophy founded by Auguste Comte, which limits speculation and knowledge to observed facts, with their constant antecedents, accompaniments, and consequences. It ignores all laws except those of manifest association; and excludes causes and effects, supernatural and spiritual agencies, hidden forces and immaterial essences. It reduces the intelligible universe to mere phenomena, refusing to search into the essential constitution of things, or to advance beyond the sphere of strictly scientific analysis and construction. It claims thus to pursue purely inductive science, and regards all beyond as not only uncertain but delusive. The system is thus

defined by Frederick Harrison, one of its eminent advocates: "By the positive method of thought we mean that which would base life and conduct, as well as knowledge, upon evidence that can be referred to logical canons of proof, which would place all that occupies man in a homogeneous system of law. On the other hand it turns aside from hypotheses that cannot be tested by any logical canon familiar to science; and from ideal standards which profess to transcend the field of law. We say, life and conduct shall stand for us wholly on a basis of law, and must rest entirely in that region of science (not physical, but moral and social science) where we are free to use our intelligence in inethods which the intellect can analyze.' To this may be added the original description of the system by Comte himself: "In fine, in the positive state the human mind, recognizing the imposibility of attaining absolute notions, renounces the investigation of the origin and destination of the universe, and inquiry into the intrinsic causes of phenomena, and attaches itself instead solely to the discovery, by judicious combination of reasoning and observation, of their invariable relations of succession and resemblance. The explication of facts thus reduced to its real terms is, thenceforward, nothing more than the connection established between the diverse phenomena and certain general facts whose number is constantly diminished by the progress of science." Notwithstanding the apparent originality imparted to the system by its modern dress and forms of thought, acute thinkers detect in it a revival of the old dogma that man is the measure of the universe. The ancient connection between the macrocosm and microcosm is repeated by limiting the intelligible universe to the image that the human mind can obtain by reasoning on the phenomena that the bodily senses observe. The boundless universe, and the mind, heart, and duty of man, are narrowed down to the mere knowledge of visible things. "The combined activity of the human powers, organized around the highest of them," it calls "the soul." Sir David Brewster criticises it as "an extravagant transformation of that rational empiricism which professes to take experience for its basis, resulting from insisting on the prerogatives of experience in reference to external phenomena, and ignoring them in relation to the movements and tendencies of our intellectual nature." See COMTE,

POSSÉ COMITATUS means the whole force of the county, consisting of knights and men above the age of 15, with constables, who attend the orders of the sheriff to assist in enforcing process or quelling riots. Justices of the peace can also, if apprehensive of an organized resistance, command the services of the posse comitatus, and it is the sheriff's duty to raise the necessary number of men. But practically, in modern times, constables and special constables are all the assistance given or required.

POSSESSION OF PROPERTY, in point of law, is the most intimate relation that can subsist between the owner and his property. Strictly speaking, the idea of property consists merely of a certain relation between a human being and a portion of external nature, whereby he appropriates to himself all the ordinary uses of which such external nature is capable. If it is land, he reaps the fruits, and excludes all other persons from interfering with bis cperations; if it is a chattel, he keeps it under his exclusive control. Possession, therefore, is nothing but the legal result of the relation of property. Possession, though originally constituting the whole substance of property, has, as civilization advanced, become a separable part of it; and while the radical right is now the ownership, the possession is viewed as an incident of such ownership. It is now not only separable but salable, and constitutes the foundation of the contract between landlord and tenant, whereby the owner, by way of a lease, sells for a limited period the exclusive use, otherwise called the possession. So long, therefore, as an owner exists, he has, as a necessary consequence, the right, more or less immediately and directly, to the possession of property. When all record of ownership is lost, then the law permits a resort to first principles, and allows any person who has been in possession for a limited time to retain it, and so ultimately acquire the ownership. If the possession is suddenly or wrongfully interfered with, the usual remedy, in England, to recover possession of real property, such as land or houses, is an action of ejectment; if the property is a chattel, it is an action of trover or detinue. But the possession may be recovered also by other modes. See also OWNERSHIP and LOST PROPERTY.

POSSET, a dietetic preparation, made by curdling milk with some acidulous liquor, such as wine, ale, or vinegar. White wine or sherry is usually preferred, but sometimes old ale is used. The milk is boiled; and whilst it is still on the fire, the acidulous matter is added; if sherry, about a wine glassful and a half to the pint of new milk is the proportion; or twice the quantity if ale. A teaspoonful of vinegar or of lemon-juice is sometimes used instead; one or two tablespoonfuls of treacle are added, to sweeten. Taken at bedtime, it is used for colds and coughs.

POST, ALFRED CHARLES, LL.D.; b. New York, 1806; graduated at Columbia college in 1822; appointed in 1851 professor of surgery in the medical department of the university of New York, and attending and consulting surgeon to various hospitals and institutions in New York. He d. 1886.

POST, TRUMAN MARCELLUS, D.D., b. Vt., 1810; graduated at Middlebury college in 1829; was principal of an academy at Castleton, Vt., 1829-30; tutor at Middlebury college 1830-32; settled at Jacksonville, Ill., and admitted to the bar in 1833; became professor

Post.

of languages in Illinois college, and, afterward, of history; was ordained and installed pastor of the Congregational church of Jacksonville in 1840; in 1847 became pastor of the Third Presbyterian church at St. Louis, and in 1852, of the First Congregational church, of which he became pastor emeritus, in 1882. He was professor of history in the Washington university of St. Louis, of church history in the theological seminary at Chicago, and lecturer on Congregationalism in the seminary at Andover. He is the author of The Skeptical Era in Modern History, published also sermons, pamphlets, and addresses, and contributed to various periodicals. All his work shows scholarship, spiritual fervor, and intellectual breadth. He d. 1886.

POST, WRIGHT, 1766-1828; b. Long Island, N. Y.; studied medicine for six years in New York and London; practiced medicine in New York in 1786; became in 1792 professor of surgery, and afterward of anatomy and physiology in Columbia college; visited the celebrated schools of Europe, and returned in 1793 with a splendid anatomical cabinet; became in 1813 professor of anatomy in the college of physicians and surgeons, and its president 1821-26. He was for 30 years consulting physician of the New York hospital, and a member of the prominent literary societies of the city.

POSTAL SERVICE. See POST-OFFICE.

POST-CAPTAIN, an obsolete title applied to captains in the royal navy: it has been disused for many years. See CAPTAIN.

POSTE RESTANTE (Fr., to remain at the post-office till called for), a usual mode of addressing letters to persons who are merely traveling in, or passing through, a country in which they have no fixed residence. English travelers on the continent have very generally their letters so addressed to some town through which they expect to pass. The poste-restante office is open at certain hours, and the letters are given out when called for, production of a card, passport, or other evidence of identity being sometimes required. Letters unclaimed for a certain time are opened, and either destroyed or returned to their writer. There is a poste-restante office in London, under stringent regu lations as to the conditions on which letters are given out. If the applicant for a letter be a British subject, or subject of a state not issuing passports, he must state the place from which he expects letters, and he, or the messenger who applies for him, must be provided with some proof of identity. If he be the subject of a country which issues passports, his passport must be produced. In the provincial post-offices of Great Britain, commercial travelers, tourists, and persons without a settled residence may have their letters addressed poste restante, and they are kept at the post-office till called for; but residents are not allowed to have their letters so addressed, and the post-office authorities have orders to deliver them. In the British post-office, letters addressed poste restante are kept one month, and then returned to the writer through the dead-letter office.

POSTERN, in fortification, is a small doorway communicating usually through the flank of a bastion between the fort and the ditch. Its object is to afford unseen egress to troops marched out to relieve sentries on the external works, to make sallies, etc. The postern is often called the "sally-port."

POSTHUMOUS CHILD, one born after the father's death, or taken from the body of the mother after death. Such a child is regarded by the law as already born at the time of the parent's death, and when the father has made no provision in his will for the posthumous child, the will is so far revoked as to allow it to take the property or such portion as it would have been entitled to if it had been born before the father's death.

POSTING, the forwarding of passengers from place to place by means of relays of horses The application of the same words-post and postmaster-to the transmission of letters and to the stations where post-horses are kept, is, both on the continent of Europe and in Britain, a source of ambiguity. Posting was long in Britain, as it is yet in most parts of the continent, a government monopoly. A statute of Edward VI. fixed the charges of posting at 1d. per mile in 1548. The post-office act of 1656 confirmed the monopoly of furnishing post-horses for travelers in favor of the postmaster and his deputies; for a long time past, however, posting has been in the hands of private individuals. Post-chaises were first used in France, and introduced into England in the early part of last century. The payment is estimated per mile for each pair of horses, without regard to the number of persons conveyed; and a second pair of horses is charged at the same rate as the first.

Over the continent generally posting is managed by the state, which retains the monopoly of supplying post-horses, and usually of forwarding the mails and diligences. The prices are fixed by government, as well as the number of horses that may be employed, which is regulated by the weight and number of persons conveyed.

POSTIQUE, an ornament in sculpture, marble, etc., applied or added after the work is otherwise finished.

POST-NUPTIAL CONTRACT means, in Scotch law, an agreement, or, as it is called in England, a settlement, made between husband and wife after the marriage has taken place, with a view to affect the property of the parties, and generally to make provision for the wife and children. As a general rule, a post-nuptial settlement is not so effectual