THE circumstances in which the Romans were placed in the first state of their settlement, made it necessary for them either to vanquish their neighbours, or themselves submit to the most degrading vassalage. Accordingly no quality was held in higher estimation than that of fortitude, and no achievement than the defeat or conquest of an enemy. The Romans were trained to war. They were a nation of warriors. When the public service required, every citizen, from the age of seventeen to forty-six, was obliged to enlist as a soldier; nor could any one at first enjoy an office in the city, who, if a horseman, had not served ten campaigns, and, if a foot soldier, twenty. The necessity of this immense military power, may be inferred from the fact, that during the existence of their republic, the Romans were almost always engaged in wars,-first, for nearly five hundred years with the different states of Italy, and afterwards, for about two hundred years more, in subduing the various countries which composed that great and mighty empire. And from the practice of every leader who had obtained a victory, making his entry at Rome in procession, arose THE TRIUMPH, which continued to be a principal object of ambition till the termination of the commonwealth.

In their martial exploits, the Romans were actuated chiefly by their sense of honour, or their view of reward. After taking

a town, or gaining a battle, it was customary for the general to distribute the booty in equal shares among the soldiers; but they were much more alive to honor than to advantage. This feeling pervaded all ranks, but especially the leaders. It has been known that one officer has been rewarded thirty-four times by his generals, and has had ceded to him, not fewer than six civic crowns.* When the distinguished tribune Decius, volunteered his services with a detachment which he conducted at the hazard of his life, upon the brink of an eminence, and so completely defeated the Samnites, as to save the whole Roman army, at a moment when it was in danger of being cut off, the consul, in the presence of all the troops, bestowed on him the highest praises, and besides many other military presents, gave him a crown of gold, and an hundred oxen, to which he added another ox of extraordinary size and beauty with gilt horns. To each soldier who had accompanied the tribune, he decreed, not only two oxen, and two complete military dresses at the time, but also a double portion of corn during the whole period they should serve. The legions, also, to express their gratitude, presented Decius with a crown of turf, which was the sign of a seige raised; and his own soldiers did the same. In fact, a general esteemed it no less a pleasure than a duty, to present his soldiers and officers, who had signalized themselves in his service, with some expression of his approval,-sometimes with a sword, a shield, and other arms; and sometimes with distinguishing military habits, with which they never failed to adorn themselves on all appropriate public solemnities.

This method of publicly rewarding distinguished service, had a powerful influence in inspiring the troops with valour. Though there were many degrees in the ascending scale of honor and distinction, elevation was not secured by birth, nor promotion purchased by money. These were held to be the just and appropriate reward of merit, and by merit only could they be attained. Whatever distance there was between the private

* The civic crown (corona civica) was composed of oaken leaves, and was awarded to such as had saved the life of a citizen.

sentinel and the consular dignity, the way lay open from the lower to the higher. It was a beaten path, and examples were not wanting of even citizens advancing step after step, till at length they had attained to the supreme dignity.

But the highest military honour which could be obtained in the Roman state, was

A TRIUMPH-OR SOLEMN PROCESSION,

in which a victorious general and his army advanced through the city to the capitol. There were the lesser and the greater triumph. When a victory had been gained without difficulty-with a people otherwise than considerable, or not attended with any great defeat of the enemy, the inferior triumph, called OVATIO, was granted, in which the general entered the city on foot or on horseback, crowned, not with laurel, but with myrtle, and amid but feeble demonstrations of joy. But when a triumph was decreed by the senate, (and especially when it met with no opposition from the people, who had the liberty of deliberating in assembly on the affair,) to a general, who, in a just war with foreigners, and in one battle, had slain above five thousand enemies of the republic, and had thus enlarged the limits of the empire, it formed one of the most grand and magnificent spectacles ever beheld in ancient times. As soon as the general had distributed part of the spoils to the soldiers, and performed some other ceremonies, the procession commenced, and advanced with great pomp. First went musicians of various kinds, singing and playing triumphal songs, and making the air vocal with their harmony-next, were led the oxen to be sacrificed, many of them having their horns gilt, and their heads adorned with fillets and flowers;—then came the spoils which had been taken, either borne on the shoulders of young men in magnificent attire, or displayed in carriages; these included rich furniture, statues, pictures, plate, vases, and vests, of which they had stripped palaces and the houses of the great;-the arms and the armour they had taken from the enemy, with the uncounted coins of the empires they had conquered, pillaged, and enslaved; not excepting'golden crowns and other gifts sent by the allied and tributary states. The names of the vanquished nations were written in great

legible characters on wooden frames; and representations of the cities taken, exhibited. But what most attracted the attention of the assembled spectators, were the illustrious captives, who followed in chains-kings, princes, and nobles. Nor these alone: -not only the sovereigns of large and opulent kingdoms-the magnanimous heroes who had fought valiantly for their country and their liberties, but their wives and children-the weak and tender sex, born to a happier fate, and young children insensible of their wretched condition, were, with the last dishonour and ignomy, led in fetters before the victor's chariot, through the public streets of Rome.* After these captives, came the lictors, having their fasces, or rods, wreathed with laurel, followed by a great company of musicians and dancers dressed like satyrs, and wearing crowns of gold; in the midst of whom was a pantomime clothed in a female garb, whose business it was, with his looks and gestures, to insult the vanquished. Next, followed a long train of persons carrying the richest perfumes, and scattering them before the triumphal car. Then came the GENERAL, mounted on a superb chariot, gilt, and adorned with ivory, and drawn by four white horses, (sometimes by elephants,) he himself being robed with the august and magnificent habit of triumph,—purple, embroidered with gold-his head encircled with a crown of laurelholding a branch of laurel in his right hand, and in his left an ivory sceptre surmounted with an eagle; while from his breast hung a golden ball, with some amulet in it, or magical preservative against envy, attended by his relatives and thousands of spectators, with his children in the chariot beside him. On either side rode his legati and military tribunes; and behind the chariot came the consuls and senators on foot, followed by the whole army,-first the cavalry, and then the infantry, crowned with

* Plutarch, in his account of the triumph of Æmilius, at the conquest of Macedon, represents this tragical circumstance in a very affecting manner. The king's CHILDREN were also led captive, and, along with them, a train of nurses, and tutors, and governors, all bathed in tears, stretching out their hands to the spectators, and teaching the children to entreat and supplicate their mercy. There were two boys and a girl whose tender age rendered them insensible to the greatness of their calamity, and this their insensibility was the most affecting circumstance in their unhappy condition. What inhuman pleasure—what barbarous joy, to see princes, kings, princesses, queens, tender infants, and feeble old men, dragged before a fellow-mortal, clothed in the triumph of an hour!

laurel, and decorated with the gifts which they had received for their valour, singing their own and their general's praises.

As soon as the general turned his chariot from the FORUM towards the CAPITOL, he ordered the captive kings and leaders of the enemy to be led to prison, and sometimes to be slain! On reaching the capitol, having first offered up a prayer of thanksgiving to Jupiter and the other gods for his success, he commanded the victims to be slain-deposited his golden crown in the lap of Jupiter, to whom he dedicated part of the spoils; and devoted the evening with his friends and the chief men of the city to a sumptuous entertainment; after which he was conducted home amid the burning of torches-the strains of music-and the rising acclamations of the assembled multitude. Imperial Rome, on this most splendid occasion, was a scene of universal festivity;-the temples were all thrown open, and were adorned with garlands, and filled with clouds of incense, and the richest perfumes ;-the spectators were clothed in white ;-hecatombs of victims were slain,-and the most magnificent entertainments were provided.*

To several of these well-known circumstances attending a Roman triumph, we find that the sacred writers freely allude: -"I have fought a good fight. He hath spoiled principalities and powers, and made a show of them openly; triumphing over them in his cross. Now thanks be unto God who always causeth us to triumph in Christ. We are unto God a sweet savour of Christ in them that are saved, and in them that perish. Henceforth there is laid up for me a crown of righteousness. To him that overcometh will I give the crown of life!" How beautiful the allusion! Before angels and the whole assembled world, Christ is here represented as acknowledging and applauding distinguished piety, and publicly conferring CROWNS of immortal glory upon persevering and victorious holiness!

* When the victory was gained by sea, it was called a NAVAL TRIUMPH : which honour was first granted to Duilius, who defeated the Carthaginian fleet near Liparae, in the first Punic war, A. U. 493; and a pillar erected to him in the FORUM, called COLUMNA ROSTRATA, with an inscription, part of which still remains,