bor, the impulses toward action, help, and beneficence, the desire for removing human error, clearing human confusion, and diminishing human misery, the noble aspiration to leave the world better and happier than we found it,-motives eminently such as are called social,-come in as part of the grounds of culture, and the main and pre-eminent part. Culture is then properly described not as having its origin in curiosity, but as having its origin in the love of perfection; it is a study of perfection. It moves by the force, not merely or primarily of the scientific passion for pure knowledge, but also of the moral and social passion for doing good."

d. By Concrete Example

One of the simplest, and at the same time most effective, aids to definition is a concrete case in point. Often when abstract statements about a proposition fail to reach home, or when it is desired to clinch an abstract presentation, a single instance of the actual working of the theory advanced will clarify the understanding of the audience. The illustration may even be hypothetical since it is employed for the purpose of explanation, not conviction. Whenever possible, however, a real incident is preferable because it conveys the impression that the idea is a practical, working one. The example must be

clearly to the point, and care must be taken never to develop any illustrative feature to such an extent that it distracts the mind of the audience from the topic by overshadowing the idea which the example is intended to illuminate. To exemplify the use of the concrete case in definition, let us suppose that the topic of discussion is "Municipal Government," and the particular point to be defined, "Lack of Departmental Cooperation." Either before or after his abstract presentation, the speaker might say:

An instance happened a few days ago in X which will serve to illustrate what I mean by lack of departmental co-operation. A fire occurred in one of the crowded sections of the city, and after it was extinguished a great heap of drenched débris was left in the street. Nearby residents brought the matter to the attention of the street-cleaning department, but owing to a city ordinance, this department was unable to remove the refuse without an order from the fire department. stray animals and vermin began to collect, and, as it chanced, the city was at the time in the throes of a children's epidemic. Naturally, the attention of the health and police departments was called to the matter; also further appeals to the street-cleaning department were made by incensed citizens. Still nothing was done. Finally, after five days had elapsed, an irate shop-keeper

Soon

in the neighborhood paid a truck-driver to haul away the nuisance. That is what I mean by lack of departmental co-operation.

e. By Details

One more means of definition may be cited: the method of details. In following this method, the general concept is elucidated by an analysis into the specific factors which constitute the whole. This analytical process may be applied to widely diversified classes of subjects, such as a view, a law, an action, a process, a structure, a principle, or an object. Anything which is separable into parts may profitably be subjected to detailed analysis if the speaker judges that the effect will be clearer or more impressive than that produced by a general statement. The following excerpt from Cardinal Newman's definition of a gentleman is a very good illustration of the method of details.

"Hence it is that it is almost a definition of a gentleman to say that he is one who never inflicts pain. This description is both refined and, as far as it goes, accurate. He is mainly occupied in merely removing the obstacles which hinder the free and unembarrassed action of those about him; and he concurs with their movements rather than takes the initiative himself. His benefits may be considered as parallel to what are called

comforts or conveniences in arrangements of a personal nature: like an easy chair or a good fire, which do their part in dispelling cold and fatigue, though nature provides both means of rest and animal heat without them. The true gentleman in like manner carefully avoids whatever may cause a jar or jolt in the minds of those with whom he is cast,-all clashing of opinion, or collision of feeling, all restraint, or suspicion, or gloom, or resentment; his great concern being to make everyone at his ease and at home. He has his eyes on all the company; he is tender toward the bashful, gentle toward the distant, and merciful toward the absurd; he can recollect to whom he is speaking; he guards against unseasonable allusions, or topics which may irritate; he is seldom prominent in conversation, and never wearisome. He makes light of favors while he does them, and seems to be receiving when he is conferring. He never speaks of himself except when compelled, never defends himself by a mere retort; he has no ears for slander or gossip, is scrupulous in imputing motives to those who interfere with him, and interprets everything for the best. He is never mean or little in his disputes, never takes unfair advantage, never mistakes personalities or sharp sayings for arguments, or insinuates evil which he dare not say out. From a long-sighted prudence he observes the maxim of the ancient sage, that

we should ever conduct ourselves towards our enemy as if he were one day to be our friend. He has too much good sense to be affronted at insults, he is too well employed to remember injuries, and too indolent to bear malice. He is patient, forbearing, and resigned, on philosophical principles; he submits to pain, because it is inevitable, to bereavement because it is irreparable, and to death because it is his destiny."

It is of course patent that the detailed organization of the above passage can hardly be paralleled in extemporaneous speech; but the striking effect of its finished elaboration suggests that in using any method of definition the speaker may profit greatly by being sure that the subject is clearly defined in his own mind. Furthermore, it is desirable that as far as possible he should determine while planning his address the methods he will use in defining the more important ideas. With a knowledge of the various means of exposition previously discussed, he may trust to impromptu explanation of matters of minor importance.

D. SUMMARY

At the opening of this chapter it was pointed out that no one detailed plan of procedure could be suggested for handling the wide variety of topics used by speakers. Certain general principles of construction, however, which apply under any