ページの画像
PDF
ePub

OBSERVATIONS.

From the Saxon ane are derived our an, a, and one. Hence an is the older for.n, which has become a for the sake of euphony. Even in English written in the last century, we not unfrequently find an used where a would now be prefer red. An or a is now sometimes equivalent to one; but generally it differs from it by a shade of meaning. "It weighs a pound, or one pound;" but when I say, "The whole community rose like one man, and built a bridge over the river," one and a are not interchangeable. "Will you take a horse?" or something else? "Will you take one horse?"—or two? The is akin to that, but less emphatic; and formerly it was sometimes used even before relative pronouns. "Northumber land, thou ladder, by the which my cousin Bolingbroke ascends my throne.”— Shakespeare.

As a general thing, substantives must have or assume meaning, or must have meaning liable to be widened or contracted, before the articles can be applied to them; and substantives must be without meaning, or have meaning not liable to be widened or contracted, or must be fixed in application, before they can dispense with the articles. Substantives denoting material or abstract substances sui generis, or having themselves the accessory idea of distinction from other things, do not require the article. The article generally has a double reference: the one, to other objects of the same kind; and the other, to other kinds. "Give me an apple," refers not only to other apples, but also, by way of exclusion, to oranges, peaches, plums, cakes, or other objects.

The often suggests that there is but one object or group of the kind, supposed, by the speaker, to be generally known; a or an always implies that there are or may be other similar objects. The implies that the speaker and the hearer have in common a knowledge of the individual as well as of the class,-such a knowledge as enables the speaker to suggest at once to the hearer, by means of the article, the object meant; but a or an does not necessarily require that they have in common more than a knowledge of the class.

The article may be definite, indefinite, or omitted, according to many different views:"The sun, the

1. Definite, as referring to the general knowledge of mankind. earth, the Messiah, the dyspepsy, the sword, the Sabbath."

2. Definite, as referring to the general knowledge of a community, to things often noticed, or often thought of. "The Missouri Compromise." "The Legislature." "The never-failing brook, the busy mill, the decent church that topped the neighboring hill." "Go to the well

3. Definite, as referring to the knowledge of the family circle. -to the barn." "Where is the washbowl?" "The old oaken bucket." 4. Definite, as referring to the knowledge of the person addressed. the letter."

"Give me

5. Definite, as referring to what has been mentioned, spoken of, or already brought to the notice of the person addressed. "Go along till you come to a bridge; and just beyond the bridge, turn to the right." These last two principles are often violated; speakers or writers presuming too much on the knowledge of their hearers or readers, or speaking of objects unknown as if other people were as well acquainted with them as they themselves are. "I will now give you an account of the great hurricane, which passed over our village when I was a boy." Say, "a great.'

6. Definite, as referring to the class to which the object belongs. "The [boat] Fulton went the Hudson" [river]. up "Alexander the Great." Bolivar was the Washington of South America."

of men."

7. Definite, by way of preeminence. (See the preceding paragraph.) “The man "The Bible is the book of books." "The generous Lafayette." 8. Definite, as comprehending the whole class, or as referring to other classes of objects. "The horse is a useful animal." "The letters are divided," &c. "The beautiful." "The Stuarts."

"One or the other of two."

9. Definite, as referring to the other parts associated with the object. "The neck connects the head and the trunk."

10. Definite, as being a necessary part or accompaniment, and as being therefore known to some extent to the hearer. "The weather was fine." "The fare "Andre stood beside was good: the coffee and rolls were particularly excellent." the coffin." "The enemy were on the other side."

11. Definite, as being alone, or all, and known to be so. "The earth is some what flat at the polos." "The first and the last."

12. Definite, as being made so by some accompanying descriptive words. "The BLUE-EYED damsel." "The win is oF AUTUMN.” The man WHO IS UPRIGHT."

1. Indefinite, as first introducing an object of a known class, or as implying that there are or may be other objects of the same kind. "An old manuscript, found in Rome, has," &c. "He is a saddler." "A Homer." In this sense, the noun may be even to some extent made definite by other words.

2. Indefinite, as being used in the sense of any, each, or every. "A conjunction connects words." "A dollar a pair."

"A

3. Indefinite, to exclude the ambiguous sense which the would give. "She received a third of the estate." "The third" might suggest a particular third. librarian is a person who has charge of a library." The person" might suggest that "person" is the subject-nominative.

1. Omitted, because the mind does not individualize the object, or conceive it with definite limits. 66 Orthography treats of the forms of letters and words." "The oak is a species of tree."

2. Omitted, because, by frequent notice of the object, the word has acquired almost the definiteness of a proper name, or because it is merely descriptive. "Where is father?" "At table." "With body and soul." "On foot." "Go

to bed." "Boston Common."

3. Omitted, because if used it might imply too much importance or emphasis. "Notice." "A Notice" might suggest, Now look here; for this is a notice that is & notice.

[ocr errors]

4. Omitted, because it might give a wrong impression. "He was then sheriff." Use essence of peppermint." She is heir to a little fortune."

5. Omitted, for the sake of poetic measure. "The why is plain as way to parish church.”—Shakespeare.

"Bear

Always consider carefully, in the use of words, what the sense requires. "A pine is a species of a tree," is improper; because one tree is not a class, nor is a whole class a part of one tree. The pine is a species of tree. But when a is needed to express the meaning, it is perhaps allowable. "What kind of paper [the material] have you?" differs from "What kind of a paper [document] have you?" Worcester to the death."-Shak. Improper, because no particular kind of death was meant. - to death-to his death. A half eagle," and " half an eagle," are not necessarily equivalent. What is true of all, is usually true of each: hence we can say, A wise man may be more useful than a rich man;" "A good pupil never disobeys his instructor;"-or, "The wise man may be more useful than the rich man """The good pupil never disobeys his instructor." There are some things

66

66

[ocr errors]

that may be conceived either in the gross or as individuals; and hence the article may be either omitted or used. "It fell with loud noise," "It fell with a loud noise." "I see a farm." First observance; just enough knowledge of it to tell what it is. "I see the farm." Previous knowledge. Cæsar, a Cæsar;" "From liberty each nobler science sprung, a Bacon brightened, and a Spenser sung,' Meaning assumed, application extended. "Dar'st thou, then, to beard the lion in his den, the Douglas in his hall?"-Scott. "These are the sacred feelings of thy heart, Lyttleton, the friend."-Thomson. "I never knew any other man so much the gentleman." Preeminence. The is sometimes an elegant substitute for the possessive pronoun. "He took me by the hand"--my hand. "Judge the tree by the fruit"-its fruit. 66 They had never bowed the knee to a tyrant.'

66

"There are few mistakes in his composition"—almost none. "There are a few mistakes in his composition"-some-many. "There are not a few mistakes in his composition"-very many. So, "She has little vanity;" "She has a little vanity;" "She has not a little vanity." A noun limited by the indefinite article, may often be made plural in the same sense, by omitting the article: as, He was a representative from St. Louis ;" "They were representatives from St. Louis." Elegance requires,-"He paid neither the principal nor the interest-both the principal and the interest-the principal as well as the interest-the principal, but not the interest-principal and interest. We usually say, "Too good a man,' "Too large an apple," &c.; accordingly, it is better to say, (Too nice a woman, "Too frequent a repetition," than, "A too nice woman,' "A too frequent repetition." "He is a better poet than painter." He is not so good a painter. "He is a better painter than a poet." In painting, he excels poets. white calf-one calf. "The black and the white calf "-two. light and a strong wagon"-two. "He wrote for a light and strong wagon"-one.

[ocr errors]

"The black and "He wrote for a

"He married a handsome, a sensible, and an accomplished woman"-married three. Say, 66 a handsome, sensible, and accomplished woman." "A farmer, lawyer, and politician, addressed the assembly""-one person. "I saw the editor, the printer, and the proprietor of the paper"-three persons. But, for the sake of emphasis, and when the meaning can not be misconceived, the article is sometimes repeated; as, "There sat the wise, the eloquent, and the patriotic Chatham." 'Give me the fourth and the last," may not be equivalent to "Give me the fourth and last." We can not say, "The definite and the indefinite articles," nor, "The definite and indefinite article;" but we must say, "The definite and the indefinite article," "The definite and indefinite articles," or, "The definite article and the indefinite." The last is generally the best mode of expression. The omission of the article sometimes implies a unity in the objects, or in the view taken; the repetition of it, separation. "The soul and body." Viewed as one. "The soul and the body." Viewed separately and distinctly. "The day, the hour, and the minute, were specified." Emphasis. "I have just sold a house and lot a horse and buggy." One belonged to the other. "I have just sold a house and a lota horse and a buggy." One did not belong to the other. "He is a poet and a mathematician.' Qualifications seldom found in the same person. "He is a physician and surgeon-a lawyer and politician." Qualifications usually found in the same person. "A singular and plural antecedent require a plural verb."Wells. Require, in the plural number, shows the sense; but the article should rather have been repeated. "There are three persons; the first, second, and third." Mr. Brown contends that this should be, "There are three persons; the first, the second, and the third." I think he is hypercritical in regard to such expressions. QUERY.-Should the indefinite article be repeated before each one of a series of substantives, merely because a different form of the article is required Mr. Murray thinks it should; the other grammarians treat the difficulty with characteristic evasion. I should not hesitate to omit the article to avoid a clumsier expression. I should rather say, "A preposition shows the relation of a noun, adjective, verb, or adverb, to an objective," than, "A preposition shows the relation of a noun, an adjective, a verb, or an adverb, to an objective." Some of the best authors favor the former mode of expression. Such expressions as "A historiau," "A harmonic scale," have occasionally been countenanced by the best writers and critics; and it would seem that euphony sometimes allows the a, when the first syllable is closed by a consonant sound, or when the h is heard with considerable distinctness.

7. ADJECTIVES.

203. An adjective is a word used to qualify or limit the meaning of a substantive.

Ex.-"A mellow apple; a beautiful woman; a brilliant star; five carriages; yon der mountains; brass buttons; hoary-headed inen; a large, red, and juicy apple; eyes bright, blue, and affectionate." "He is industrious and frugal." the poor is mean."

To slight

Our language has about 7,000 adjectives; and they give to it not a little of its beauty, energy, and precision.

204. Words from other parts of speech are frequently used as adjectives.

Ex. "A gold ring; a mahogany table; state revenue; California gold; she politicians; a would-be scholar; parsing exercises; rolling prairies; the far-off future; the above remarks; a farewell address." "The lightnings flashed vermilion."-Dante. ("The rose looks red.") "The West is as truly American, as genuinely Jonathan, as any other part of our country."— Wise.

205. Adjectives may be divided into two chief classes; descrip tive and definitive.

206. A descriptive adjective describes or qualifies.

Ex.--Good, white, square. "The green forest was bathed in golden light."

207. A definitive adjective merely limits or modifies.

Ex. "There are many wealthy farmers in this country."

Adjectives may be divided also into several smaller classes: namely, common; participial; compound; numeral, comprising cardinal, ordinal, and multiplicative; and pronominal, comprising distributive, demonstrative, and indefinite.

208. A common adjective is any ordinary epithet of the language; as, Good, upper.

209. A proper adjective is an adjective derived from a proper noun; as, American, English, Newtonian.

210. A participial adjective is a participle ascribing the act or state to its subject as a quality; as, "Twinkling stars."

In the phrase "his dying day," dying is a mere adjective; and it is plain, for instance, that unepitaphed" without epitaph," and unhorsed-"deprived of horse," differ radically in sense. A participial adjective is derived directly from a verb, is nearly always placed before its noun, and generally expresses a permanent or habitual act or state.

.as

211. A compound adjective is a compound word used as an adjective; "Thick-warbled songs."

[ocr errors]

212. A numeral adjective expresses number definitely; as, Two, second, twofold.

The cardinal numerals tell how many, as one, two; the ordinal, which one, as first, second; and the multiplicative, how many fold, as single, double, twofoll. A long or composite numeral is parsed as one word.

213. The pronominal adjectives are a class of definitive adjectives of which some are occasionally used as pronouns; as, That, this, other. The distributive point out objects as taken separately; as, Each, every, either, neither, many a.

The demonstrative, or definite, point out objects definitely; as, This, yonder
The indefinite point out objects indefinitely; as, Any, some.

Degrees of Comparison.

Since the same quality may exist in different objects and in different degrees, adjectives are modified to express higher or lower degrees, or the highest or the lowest degrees, of the quality. Hence adjectives have what are called the degrees of comparison.

Ex.-"Lime is white; milk is whiter; but snow is the whitest of all.”.

Adjectives have three degrees of comparison; the positive, the comparative, and the superlative.

214. a. The positive degree expresses the quality simply. Ex.-" A young orchard; a large farm." "The fields look green and fresh." 215. b. It ascribes an equal degree of the quality, without refer

ence to lower or higher degrees of the same quality.

Ex.-"She is as good as he." “A woman as modest as she is beautiful.”

216. a. The comparative degree ascribes the quality in a

higher or a lower degree to one object, or set of objects, than to another.

Ex.-" A younger brother; more important affairs; a boy less studious."

217. b. It expresses the quality in a higher or a lower degree, as reckoned from some other condition or quality of the same object or of a different object.

Ex.-"A nation is happier in peace than in war." "I am better than I was.' "She is more accomplished than wise." My horse is whiter than yours is black."

[ocr errors]

The comparative degree always implies two considered distinct from each other; and it either refers to the same quality in two different objects or in two different conditions of the same object, or it refers to one quality as contrasted with a different one. That from which it is reckoned, is sometimes understood, or exists only in the mind.

Ex.-"A more eligible situation" [than some other one]. "What is better is always preferred."

The comparative degree may be construed with than after it; therefore such words as superior, inferior, interior, preferable, previous, &c., are not in the comparative degree. And I doubt very much whether such words as inner, outer, upper, hinder, can be properly said to be in the comparative degree. They do not admit than after them, and they refer to an opposite rather than to a positive state: thus, upper refers to lower, rather than to up; inner, to outer. Inner and outer differ very little from internal and external.

218. a. The superlative degree expresses the quality in the highest or the lowest degree in which such objects have it.

Ex. "The loveliest flowers were there." "The most skillful rider could do no better." "The least skillful rider could do no worse." "Two kindest souls alone must meet; 'tis friendship makes the bondage sweet."- Watts.

219. b. It ascribes the quality in the highest or the lowest degree to one object, or group of objects, as compared with the rest, or with other conditions of the same object.

Ex.-"The largest sycamore on the river." "The best peaches are taken from the tree." "He sat highest on Parnassus." "I am happiest at home."

The superlative degree implies three or more objects classed together; or else it implies other similar conditions of the same object.

220. An adjective can not be compared with propriety, when it denotes a quality or property that can not exist in different de

grees.

Ex.-Equal, level, perpendicular, square, naked, round, straight, first, second, one, two, blind, deaf, dead, empty, perfect, right, honest, sincere, hollow, fourfooted.

221. Good writers, however, sometimes use such adjectives in the comparative or the superlative degree; but then they do not take them in their full sense.

Ex.-"Our sight is the most perfect of our senses. "-Addison. This means that it approaches nearer, than the rest, to perfection. "And love is still an emptier name."-Goldsmith. Almost all descriptive or qualifying adjectives may be used either as absolute, in their meaning, or as relative. And hence the comparative and superlative degrees may sometimes express even less of the quality than the positive degree expresses. "John's apple may be better than mine, and William may have the best apple, yet not one of them may be really good." Your largest horse is a mere pony."

[ocr errors]
« 前へ次へ »