What does a preposition usually join to some other word or part of the sentence? A substantive denoting the place, time, doer, possessor, cause, means, manner, or some other circumstance. Ex. "The apples hang on the tree." "We have snow IN winter." "He was stabbed BY a volunteer, WITH the sword or a Kentuckian." "To write WITH ease and rapidity." What is an adjunct? An adjunct is a preposition with its object, or with the words required after it to complete the sense. Is the preposition always expressed? It is sometimes understood. See above. Ex.-" Give him his book"-Give his book to him. "I stood near him"-I stood near to him. "He is like his father"He is like to or unto his father. Can you repeat the prepositions that begin with a?—b?—c ? —d? —e?—ƒ?—i?—n?— of-pi-ri-8 ? —t? —u? —w! 8. CONJUNCTIONS. When I say, "John and James write;" "John writes and ciphers;" "John writes fast and well;" "John spilt his ink on the desk and on the floor;" "John writes twice every day, and I generally look at his writing;" you see that the word and brings on something more to what has been said, or joins together two words, two phrases, or two propositions; and as conjunction means joining together, this word, and others like it, have been called conjunctions. What definition, then, may be given of a conjunction? A conjunction is a word used to connect other words, and show the sense in which they are connected. Ex.-" Grain will be cheap, and perhaps unsalable." "Grain will be cheap, for the harvest is abundant." "Grain will be cheap, if the winter continue mild." "Grain will be cheap, but now it is dear." "He rides, if he is sick," "He rides, though he is sick." "He rides, because he is sick.” Two conjunctions are sometimes combined, and certain phrases are sometimes used in the sense of conjunctions: as, "His health, as well as his estate, is ruined; and yet he still persists in his course." The former expressions may be called complex conjunctions; and the latter, conjunctive phrases; or both may be termed simply conjunctions." What is a coordinate conjunction? A coördinate conjunction connects parts of equal rank. Ex.-And, but, or. "The woods are sprouting, and the dove is cooing." Here and connects clauses that do not depend on each other, and therefore they are said to be coördinate, which means of equal rank. What is a subordinate conjunction ? A subordinate conjunction connects parts of unequal rank. Ex.-If, that, since, because. "I will work for you, if you pay me." Here if connects two clauses, of which one depends on the other, and therefore the dependent one is said to be subordinate, which means ranking under. What is a corresponding or correlative conjunction? A corresponding conjunction suggests another conjunction, and assists it in connecting the same parts. Ex.-"I will neither buy NOR sell." "Though he reproves me, yet I esteem him." Can you mention the chief ideas conveyed by the different conjunctions in reference to the parts connected? Addition, separation, contrariety, cause, consequence, purpose, condition, concession, and comparison. By examining the beginning of this section, what words would you infer may be connected by conjunctions? Words of almost any part of speech. Where are conjunctions mostly used? In connecting the parts of compound sentences. Are conjunctions ever understood? Sometimes they are; and other words are generally understood after them. Ex.-"Rout, [and] ruin, [and] panic, seized them all." "I knew [that] he had lost it." "You may first read this sentence, and then [you may] parse it." How may adverbs, prepositions, and conjunctions be distinguished, or what is the chief characteristic of each class? Of the adverb, to modify or limit; of the preposition, to govern a substantive in the objective case; and of the conjunction, to connect. Ex.-"He took but one apple." "I saw all but him." "I saw him, but he would not come." List of Conjunctions. 1. Conjunctions implying continuance or addition, simply or emphatically: And, as well as, again, also, besides, both, moreover, furthermore, even, nay, so (also). (Oopulative conjunctions.) 2. Separation or choice: Or, nor, either, neither, or else. (Alternative or dis junctive conjunctions.) (Ad 8. Contrariety, restriction, or reservation: But, yet, still, however, howsoever, nevertheless, notwithstanding, unless (but not... if), except that, save. versative or restrictive conjunctions.) 4. Comparison: Than, as. (Comparative conjunctions.) 5. Concession: Although, though, even if, even though, notwithstanding, albeit. (Concessive conjunctions.) 6. Condition or doubt: If, unless (if not), whether, provided, provided that, in case that, so, except, lest. (Conditional or contingent conjunctions.) 7. Cause or reason: Because, for, since, as, seeing, inasmuch as, forasmuch as, whereas. (Causal conjunctions.) 8. Consequence or inference: Ther, so, therefore, wherefore. junctions.) (Illative con 9. Purpose, motive, or statement: That, so that, in order that, lest, so as. 10. Corresponding conjunctions: Either-or; neither-nor; whether-or; ifthen; though, or although—yet; both-and; as—so; as—as. Conjunctions are sometimes accumulated, or take adverbial particles, merely to strengthen or to modify slightly the connection between the parts. Sometimes, phrases even, or adverbial particles, may be treated simply as conjunctions, unless great accuracy is required; or else they may be analyzed more rigidly otherwise, especially by supplying such words as may be reasonably supposed to have been omitted. The conjunctions of the first three classes are chiefly coordinate; the others, to the tenth class, subordinate. The former rather indicate the movements and turns of thought; the latter subjoin parts that are used more or less in the sense of parts of speech. Can you mention two copulative conjunctions?—two alternative? (Pass thus through the List.) 9. INTERJECTIONS. In every language, there are certain words used when the mind is suddenly or greatly excited, in order to give vent to some strong feeling or sudden emotion; as, Oh! alas! These words are called interjections, a word that means thrown among; for they are so loosely combined with the other words of a sentence, that they seem thrown among them. What is an interjection? An interjection is a word that expresses an emotion only, and is not connected in construction with any other word. Ex.-Alas! fie! O! oh! ah! hurrah! hail! adieu ! "O Grave! where is thy victory?" "Those were happy days; but, alas! they are no more!" "Pshaw! never mind it." Where are interjections most frequently found, and what may aid us in discovering them? In poetry and in oratory: they are generally followed by the exclamation-point. As the heart is susceptible of many different emotions or feelings, the interjections may be divided into various classes. List of Interjections. 1. Of sorrow, grief, or pity: Oh! alas! ah! alack! hoo! welladay! 2. Of earnestness or joy: O! eigh! hey! eh! ha! 3. Of surprise, wonder, or horror: Hah! ha! what! h'm! heigh! strange ! indeed! hoy-dey! la! whew! zounds! eu! ah! oh! hoity-toity! 4. Of contempt or aversion: Pshaw! pish! tut! tush! poh! foh! bah! humph! faugh! whew! off! begone! avaunt! 5. Of exultation or approbation: Aha! ah! hey! huzzah! hurrah! good! bravo! 6. Of attention or calling: Ho! lo! behold! look! see! hark! la! heigh-ho! soho! holio! halloa! hoy! hold! whoh! halt! 'st! 7. Of silence: Hush! hist! whist! 'st! aw! mum! 8. Of interrogating: Eh? hem, or h'm? (The opposite of the preceding class.) 9. Of detection: Aha! oho! ay-ay! 10. Of laughter: IIa, ha, ha! he, he, he! 11. Of saluting or parting: Welcome! hail! all-hail! adieu! good-by! and perhaps good-day! good-night! good-morning! good-evening! It is difficult to make a satisfactory classification of interjections. Most of them are used with great latitude of meaning; that is, in various senses. When the learner meets with an interjection, it is perhaps best that he should determine its meaning from the spirit of the sentence or discourse. If a man cultivates the earth, he may be styled a farmer; if the same man should engage in the business of buying and selling goods, a merchant; if in preaching the gospel, a preacher: even so the same word, according to its use, is sometimes of one part of speech, and sometimes of another. Ex.-"A black horse;" "To black boots;" "Black is a color." The first black is an adjective; the second, a verb; and the third, a noun. mention two interjections of grief?—two of joy? (Pass thus through the List.) Can PAON you 10. EXERCISES ON THE FOREGOING PAGES. 1. Tell which of the following letters are vowels, and which are consonants :— A, b, c, d, e, f, g, h, i, j, k, l, m, n, o, p, q, r, s, t, u, v, w, x, y, z; bar, bed, kind, fond, turn, Baltimore. Tell which are monosyllables, dissyllables, trisyllables, polysyllables, and why :— Pink, lily, daffodil, ordinary, gold, silver, golden, silvery, book, grammar, grammatical, grammatically, arithmetic, geography, behavior, punishment, recitation, teacher, home, mother, relative, relatives, unassisted. 2. Whether primitive, derivative, or compound, and why:— Play, playing, play-day, playfellow, snow, snowy, ball, balls, snowball, snowballs, noble, nobly, nobleness, ignoble, noble-minded, plant, replant, transplanted, planter, plantation, tea-plant, water-melon, nothing, nevertheless. ers. Tell which is the subject, and which is the predicate, and why:— Birds sing. Flowers bloom. Cats catch mice. The dew refreshes the flowThe stars gem the sky. The Indians' tents stood along the river. John caught a fish. William studies his lesson. A guilty conscience needs no accuser. The grass is growing. The bird has been singing. The clothes will have been dried. Farmers raise corn. Corn is raised by farmers. 3. The subject and the predicate, and why; whether simple or compound, and why: The stars twinkle. The sun and moon shine. The sun rises and sets. Emma was gathering roses. Trees and flowers grow, flourish, and decay. The troubled ocean roars. Honey-suckles and roses overspread our portico. Laura brought a fresh rose, and gave it to me. A dark cloud hides the sun. is hidden by a dark cloud. You and he may go and recite. The soldiers' horses were in the pasture. The cannons which the soldiers brought, were captured in the battle. Do well, but boast not. The sun Whether a phrase or a sentence, and why:— Far away. The dark storm approaches. John's slate. Many small pieces. John's slate is broken into many small pieces. The rising sun. The sun is rising. A large red apple. Give me a large red apple. To write a letter. I wish to write a letter. Whether a simple sentence or a compound, and why; and if compound, mention the clauses : Hope gilds the future. True praise takes root and spreads. Fishes swim in the sea, and birds fly in the air. The sun illuminates the distant hills. As wo were coming home, we saw a most beautiful rainbow. I wish I were a child again. Billows are murmuring on the hollow shore. Gold can not purchase life, nor can diamonds bring back the moments we have lost. God has robed tho world with beauty. From flower and shrub arose a sweet perfume. The roso seemed to weep for the buds it had left. We mourn in black, because the grave is a place of darkness and dread; the Chinese mourn in white, because heaven, whither their friends are supposed to have gone, is a place of perfect purity; the Egyptians mourn in blue, because that is the color of heaven; and the Abyssinianз mourn in yellow, because falling leaves remind us of death. Hark! they whisper, angels say, Sister-spirit, come away. 4. The nouns, and why :- A green tree. A house of marble. There are lilies and tulips in our garden. The farmer ploughs his field. The groves were God's first temples. Love and kindness go together. Col. Thomas H. Benton died in the year 1858. There was much Indian fighting in the settling of this country. I like apples. I like to skate. Learn the how and the why. You is a pronoun. Why he did not go, is obvious. Oranges and lemons grow, like apples, on small trees, but in warm climates. The pear and quince lay squandered on the grass; The mould was purple with unheeded showers Of fruits, and weeds, and flowers!-Hood. The nouns, and why; whether proper or common, and why: Girl, Susan, boy, George, country, day, Europe, Saturday, month, September, holiday, Christmas, bird, blackbird, parrot, Polly, river, Mississippi, mountains, Andes, island, Cuba, chain, Jane, Louis, Louisa, Louisiana, state, city, New York, year, 1860, soil, mind, hope, army; Mrs. Amelia Welby; General Alexander Hamilton; the prophet Jonah; Cape Lookout. Ferdinand and Isabella, the king and queen of Spain, enabled Columbus, a Genoese, to discover America. Tea is the dried leaves of a shrub which grows chiefly in China. The clamor of most politicians is but an effort to get the ins out and the outs in. The pronouns, and why; what kind, and why: He saw me. We love them. She deceived herself. Know thyself. When a dandy has squandered his estate, he is not apt to regain it. The lady who had been sick, received the peaches which were ripe. This is the same marble that you gave me, and it is the best one that I have. Who came? Who is he? Which is he? What is he? We bought only such mules as we needed. (—those mules which-) Love what is worthy of love. (the thing which—) This applo is neither yours nor mine, but hers. (―your apple nor my apple, but her apple.) By others' faults, wise men correct their own. (By other men's faults, etc.) None are completely happy. (No persons are, etc.) He loves no other land so much as that of his adoption. (―as the land-) Whatever comes from the heart. goes to the heart. Do you know who he is? Teach me what truth is. Put nouns for the pronouns : John knows his lesson. Mary has lost her bonnet. He met her. I saw him and you. He showed them the lesson, that they might learn it. The girl |