present, for that time, whosoever is patron of them; and in the other case the patron may present; but by dispensation of retainder, a bishop may retain some or all the preferments he was entitled to, before he was made bishop.

CESTRUM, in botany, English bastard jasmine, a genus of the Pentandria Monogynia class and order. Natural order of Lurida. Solaneæ, Jussieu. Essential character: corolla funnel-form; stamens emitting a toothlet from their middle; berry unilocular. There are nine species, of which C. nocturnum, night smelling cestrum, is about seven feet high, covered with a greyish bark, and divides upward into many slender branches, which generally incline to one side; they are garnished with leaves placed alternately, nearly four inches long, and one and a half broad; the flowers are produced at the wings of the leaves, in small clusters, standing upon short peduncles, each sustaining four or five flowers, of an herbaceous colour. They appear in August, but are not succeeded by berries in this country those which come from America are small, and are of a dark brown colour. It is a native of the island of Cuba.

:

CESTUI, a French word, signifying he or him, frequently used in our lawwritings. Thus "cestui qui trust," a person who has lands, &c. committed to him for the benefit of another; and if such person does not perform his trust, he is compellable to it in Chancery. "Cestui qui vie," one for whose life any lands, &c. are granted. "Cestui qui use," a person to whose use any one is enfeoffed of lands or tenements. Formerly the feoffees to uses were deemed owners of the land, but now the possession is adjudged in cestui qui use.

CETE, in natural history, the seventh order of Mammalia, in the Linnæan system of animals, including the four genera; Monodon, or narval; Balena, whale; Physeter, cachalot; and Delphinus, dolphin. The cetaceous tribe has one or more spiracles placed on the fore part of the skull; no feet; pectoral fins without nails, and tail horizontal. The cetaceous order of animals has nothing peculiar to fish, except living in the same element, and being endowed with the same powers of progressive motion, as those fishes which are intended to move with considerable velocity. The popular idea of cetaceous animals being fishes is so strongly impressed on the public mind, that it can never, perhaps, be entirely removed; for the critical observations of naturalists

appear too abstruse to be generally examined, and of consequence to be commonly understood. The cetaceous tribes live in the same element as fishes, and, partaking somewhat of their external figure, will ever be considered as appertaining to that class of animals by the less informed portion of mankind.

The

Cetaceous animals, or, as Dr. Shaw expresses them, "fish-formed mammalia," have lungs, intestines, and other internal organs, formed on the same principle as in quadrupeds; and, indeed, on strict comparison, the principal differences that exist between them will not be found very considerable; one of the most material seems to consist in their want of posterior legs, the peculiar structure of the tail supplying that defect, this being extremely strong and tendinous, and divided into two horizontal lobes, but which has no internal bones. Like quadrupeds, they have a heart furnished with two auricles, and two ventricles, and their blood is warm and red: they breathe by their lungs, and not by means of gills, as in true fishes. In their amours they agree with quadrupeds; the female produces her young alive, which rarely happens among fishes, and she suckles them with her teats, as in the true mammalia. structure of their brain, their sexual or gans, stomach, and liver, resemble those of mammiferous animals. Their skin is smooth, or not covered with scales; and their tail is placed in a position the very reverse of fishes, in being always flat and horizontal, instead of vertical. The cetaceous animals, the cachalot and dolphin genera, have the mouth armed with conic teeth; the whales with horny lamina in the upper jaw; and the narval with teeth, or tusks of enormous length. They are neither sanguinary nor ferocious. Their stomachs are large, and divided into chambers to the number of five, as in the whale and porpoise, or even seven, as in the narval In the last particular they seem to constitute an intermediate link between carnivorous and herbivorous animals, approaching nearly to ruminating quadrupeds; but differ, in subsisting on animal food, as they live chiefly on actiniæ, medusæ, and other zoophytes, on crustaceous animals, and on small fish. See MONODON, BALENA, PHYSETER, and DELPHINUS.

CEYLANITE, in mineralogy, a species of the flint genus, of a dark indigo-blue, which passes into a bluish or greenish black. It recurs sometimes in rolled pieces, and angular pieces, and sometimes

prefixed; thus 10 chains 7 links must be set down 10.07.

Then if the field be a square or parallelogram, if you multiply the length expressed in chains and links, by the breadth expressed in the same manner, and cut off five figures from the product, those towards the left hand will be acres; then multiply the separated figures by four, cutting off the same number of figures, and you will have the roods or quarters of an acre; and lastly multiply the remaining figures by 40, cutting off five as before, and you will have the square perches. See SURVEYING.

CHAINS, in a ship, those irons to which the shrouds of the masts are made fast to the chain walls.

CHAIN walls, in a ship, the broad timbers which are made jetting out of her sides, to which the shrouds are fastened and spread out, the better to secure the

mnasts.

CHAIN shot, two bullets with a chain between them. They are used at sea to shoot down yards or masts, and to cut the shrouds or rigging of a ship.

CHAIN pump. See PUMP.

CHALCEDONY, in mineralogy, a species of the flint genus; of which there are, according to Werner, two subspecies, viz. the common chalcedony and the carnelian: the colour of the former is grey in all its shades. It is commonly semi-transparent, harder than flint, brittle, difficultly frangible; and the specific gravity, according to Kirwan, is about 2.6. Infusible before the blow-pipe. It is found mostly in balls, in amygdaloid, also in angular pieces and veins, in porphyry and amygdaloid. The cubic variety occurs in Transylvania, and the other varieties in Iceland, the Feroe Islands, Silecia, Saxony, Siberia, Cornwall, Scotland, &c. It is susceptible of a fine polish, and is employed as an article of jewelry. It derives its name from Chalcedon, in Asia, where it was first found. Onyx is considered as the most valuable variety of this species, and, on account of its being capable of receiving a high polish, is very much prized. It is principally cut in bas relief work, and the finest specimens for that purpose are brought from the East Indies. The dendritic variety is named mocha stone, being brought, originally, as was supposed, from Mocha, on the Red Sea; but it is now generally understood that the word mocha is a corruption from the German word mocks, which signifies moss; and

naments.

CHALCIS, in natural history, a genus of insects of the order Hymenoptera: mouth with a horny compressed jaw; feelers four, equal; antenna short, cylindrical, fusiform; the first joint a little thicker; thorax gibbous, lengthened be hind in the place of a scutel; abdomen rounded and slightly petiolate. There are eleven species.

CHALDRON, a dry English measure, consisting of thirty-six bushels, heaped up according to the sealed bushel kept at Guildhall, London; but on ship-board, twenty-one chaldrons of coals are allowed to the score.

CHALK, in natural history, a species of CALK, which see.

as

Chalk, where it is found at all, is the preponderating substance, and may therefore be considered as characterizing a peculiar species of mineral formation. It is perhaps the most recent of all the va rieties of calcareous carbonates; it occurs in strata for the most part nearly horizontal, alternating with thin layers of flint nodules, and with the same irregularity dispersed through its substance; it contains in abundance the relics of marine organized bodies, such echinites, glossopetræ, pectinites, &c. and also not unfrequently the hard parts of amphibious and land animals, as the heads and vertebræ of crocodiles, and teeth of elephants. Chalk hills never rise to a higher elevation than three or four hundred feet, and are at once distinguishable by the smooth regularity of their outline, and their remarkable tendency to form cup-shaped concavities. Ridges af chalk, in England at least, are always bordered by parallel ranges of sand or sand stone, beneath, and alternating with which are situated the beds of fullers-earth. Chalk hills are also singularly characterized by their dryness and their verdure: the most

porous sand-stone is scarcely so deficient in springs of water, and yet, except upon almost perpendicular descents, the white surface of the chalk is uniformly covered with fine turf or wood.

The chalk hills in England occupy a greater extent than in any other country; they run in a direction nearly from east to west, parallel to each other, and separated by ranges of sand-stone, and low tracts of gravel and clay. The most north ern and loftiest range of chalk commences at the promontory of Flamborough-head, in Yorkshire, and proceeds westward for nearly twenty miles. In the county of Lincoln are some fragments of a ridge near Grantham. Two ridges traverse the midland countries, and reach as far west as the horders of Oxfordshire: these ridges are no where so conspicuous as in the county of Bedford, where they approach near to each other, being only separated by the Woburn and Ampthill range of sand-stone. The country south of the Thames also contains two ridges, the one commencing at the North and South Foreland, passing through the north of Kent, the middle of Surry, and the north of Hampshire, and including the North Downs of Banstead, Epsom, &c.: the other, commencing near Hast ings and at the lofty promontory of Beachy-head, passes through Sussex and the south of Hampshire, into Dorsetshire, including the South Downs. The north part of France also abounds in chalk: it is besides met with in some of the Danish islands in the Baltic, and in Poland.

The uses of chalk are very extensive: the more compact kinds are used as building stone, and are burnt to lime (nearly all the buildings in London being cemented with chalk-mortar :) it is also largely employed in the polishing of metals and glass, in constructing moulds to cast metal in, by carpenters and others as a material to mark with, and by starchmakers and chemists to dry precipitates en, for which it is peculiarly qualified, on account of the remarkable facility with which it absorbs water.

CHALK stones. It is well known that concretions occasionally make their appearance in joints long subject to gout. These concretions, from their colour and softness, have received the name of chalk-stones. They are usually small, though they have been observed of the size of an egg. It had long been the opinion of physicians, that these concretions were similar to the urinary calculi. See CALCULI.

Of course, after the discovery of uric acid by Scheele, it was usual to consider the gouty chalk-stones as collections of that acid. They were subjected to a chemical analysis by Dr. Wollaston in 1797, who found them composed of uric acid and soda. Gouty concretions are soft and friable. Cold water has little effect upon them; but boiling water dissolves a small portion. If an acid be added to this solution, smali crystals of uric acid are deposited on the sides of the vessel. These concretions are completely soluble in potash, when the action of the alkaline solution is assisted by heat. When treated with diluted sulphuric or with muriatic acid, the soda is separated; but the uric acid remains, and may be separated by filtration. The liquid, when evaporated, yields crystals of sulphate or muriate of soda, according to the acid employed. The residuum possesses all the characters of uric acid.

When uric acid, soda, and a little warm water, are triturated together, a mass is formed, which, after the surplus of soda is washed off, possesses the chemical properties of gouty concretions.

CHALLENGE, in law, is an exception made to jurors, who are returned to a person on a trial.

This challenge is made either to the array, or to the polls: to the array, when exception is taken to the whole number of jurors impannelled; and to the polls, when an exception is made to one or more of the jury as not indifferent.

Challenge to the jurors is likewise divided into challenge principal or peremptory, and challenge for cause; that is, upon cause or reason alledged. Challenge principal, is what the law allows without any cause alledged, or further examination: as, a prisoner arraigned at the bar for felony may challenge peremptorily the number allowed him by law, being twenty, one after another, alleging no further cause than his own dislike: and the jurors, so challenged, shail be put off, and new ones taken in their places.

In cases of treason, the number of thirty-five jurors may be peremptorily challenged, without shewing any cause: and more, both in treason and felony, may be challenged, shewing cause.

If those who prosecute for the king challenge a juror, they are to assign the cause; and if the cause alleged be not a good one, the inquest shall be taken. When the king is party, if the other side challenge any juror above the number allowed, he ought to show cause of his

challenge immediately, while the jury is full, and before they are sworn. This was supposed to be law with regard to challenges made for the crown, but in the memorable state trials of 1794, the crown lawyers challenged without shewing cause, declaring that they were not bound to shew reason till the whole pannel was gone through, and then only in case that a sufficient number of jurors were not left. This was the case, and the consequence was, that the persons whom they had challenged were then taken, against whom it was ascertained there was no cause of challenge whatever. Challenge to the array is in respect of the partiality or default of the sheriff, coroner, or other officer, that made the return; and it is then twofold. First, principal challenge to the array, which, if it be made good, it is a sufficient cause of exception, without leaving any thing to the judgment of the triers; as, if the sheriff be of kindred to either party, or if any of the jurors be returned at the nomination of either of the parties. Secondly, challenged to the array for favour, which being no principal challenge, must be left to the discretion and conscience of the triers. As where either of the parties suspect that the juror is inclined to favour the opposite party. Principal challenge to the polls, is where cause is shewn, which, if found true, stands suffi. cient of itself, without leaving any thing to the triers; as, if the juror be under the age of 21, it is a true cause of challenge.

CHALYBEATE. See MINERAL WA

TERS.

CHAMA, in natural history, a genus of Vermes Testacea. Animal a tethys shell bivalve, rather coarse; hinge with a callous gibbosity, obliquely inserted in an oblique hollow; anterior slope closed: about 25 species, of which we shall notice only the C. gigas: shell plaited, with arched scales: posterior slope gaping, with crenulate margins. It inhabits the Indian ocean, and is sometimes so small as not to measure an inch in length; sometimes far exceeds all other testaceous productions, having been found of the weight of 532 pounds, and the fish or inhabitant so large as to furnish 120 men with food, and strong enough to cut asunder a cable and lop off men's hands; shell lucid, white, sometimes rosy, varied with yellow, red, and white: posterior aperture ovate, with a tumid crenate circumference; margin toothed; hinge armed with a tooth besides the callus.

CHAMELEON, in botany, a genus of

the Syngenesia Segregata class and or der. Calyx six or eight flowered, imbricate, many-leaved; calycle one-flowered, many leaved; florets tubular, all hermaphrodite; receptacle naked; seeds covered with a calycle growing to them; one species, a native of the South of Europe.

CHAMEROPS, in botany, dwarf palm, or palmetto. Essential character: herma phrodite; calyx three-parted; corolla three petalled; stamina six; pistils three; drupes three, one-seeded: males, dioe cous, as in the hermaphrodite. There are three species, of which C. humilis, dwarf fan palm, never rises with an upright stem; the foot stalks of the leaves rise immediately from the head of the root, and are armed on each side with strong spines; they are flat on their upper surface, and convex on their under side: from between the leaves comes out the spadix or club, which sustains the flowers; this is covered with a thin spathe or hood, which falls off when the bunches open and divide. It grows naturally in Italy, Sicily, and Spain, particularly in Andalusia, where, in the sandy land, the roots spread and propagate so fast, as to cover the ground in the same manner as fern in England.

CHAMBERLAIN, an officer charged with the management and direction of a chamber.

There are almost as many kinds of chamberlains as chambers, the principal of which are as follow:

CHAMBERLAIN, Lord, of Great Britain, the sixth great officer of the crown; to whom belongs livery and lodging in the king's court; and there are certian fees due to him from each archbishop or bishop, when they perform their homage to the king and from all peers at their creation, on doing their homage. At the coronation of every king, he is to have forty ells of crimson velvet for his own robes. This officer, on the coronation day, is to bring the king his shirt, coif, and, wearing clothes; and after the king is dressed, he claims his bed, and all the furniture of his chamber, for his fees: he also carries, at the coronation, the coif, gloves, and linen, to be used by the king on that occasion; also the sword and scabbard, the gold to be offered by the king, and the robes royal and crown: he dresses and undresses the king on that day, waits on him before and after din ner, &c. To this officer belongs the care of providing all things in the House of Lords, in the time of the Parliament: to him also belongs the government of the