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ribs of the vaulting, which have now lost the heaviness of the Norman period and are become light and elegant. The whole character of the building is changed, and instead of the heavy masses and horizontal lines of the Norman style, we have light and graceful forms and vertical lines.

JOHN H. PARKER: Introduction to the Study of Gothic
Architecture.

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2. Bring into class the names of six treatises you have seen advertised in some current journal.

The Abstract. The ability to make a digest or abstract or résumé of an essay or other work is very often needed by all of us. It may not be necessary to write out a formal abstract, but there will be many occasions when you will be asked to give the gist of a lecture, of a book, of an essay, of a sermon, or of a poem. One needs practice in order to give clear, adequate, brief abstracts.

To make a successful abstract of an expository work, a writer needs to exercise great care in the matter of proportion. Justice to the writer of the exposition demands that the maker of the abstract should give a clear, methodical, well-balanced, and unprejudiced summary. If the abstract is full at

the beginning and hurried at the end, or if unimportant points are elaborated while important ones are slighted, the aim of the summary is defeated.

EXERCISE

Make an abstract of each of the following:

1. An essay you have read.
2. A sermon you have heard.
3. A criticism you have read.
4. An editorial you have read.

REVIEW OF EXPOSITION

1. What is the purpose of exposition? How does it differ from narration and from description?

2. How should the subject of an exposition be limited?

3. Why is an outline essential to a successful exposition?

4. How are the paragraphs in an exposition most satisfactorily developed?

5. When should technical words be used in exposition?

6. What kind of words are most effective in exposition?

7. What are the characteristics of each of the following kinds of exposition: (1) treatise, (2) editorial, (3) character sketch, (4) criticism, (5) book review, (6) essay?

CHAPTER XXII

ARGUMENTATION

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Review of Argumentation. We have seen that in order to prove a certain truth, in order to convince a person that a certain opinion is just and reasonable, we must have evidence, either the testimony of reliable witnesses, or the testimony of facts and circumstances. The first step in argumentation is to collect the evidence bearing upon the question under discussion, the second is to arrange that evidence in such a way as to make it rouse conviction in the minds of the persons to whom it is addressed. Proof includes evidence and the reasoning from that evidence. The evidence may be directly in support of the proposition under discussion, or it may be indirectly in support, by being refutation of arguments brought forward by the persons who hold the opposite side. A sound argument consists of both direct and indirect proof.

Kinds of Reasoning. 1. Induction. Induction is the name given to that method of reasoning which from a consideration of a number of specific instances draws a general conclusion concerning those

and other similar instances. This is a form of reasoning, to which we are accustomed in everyday life. A child sees that her father, her mother, her aunt, and her uncle all have dark hair, while she has light hair. Arguing from these specific instances, the child comes to the conclusion that all grown up persons have dark hair. You notice that your friend Helen wore a green dress last winter, that she had two green muslin dresses this summer, that her room has green wall paper, and that her purse is green. Arguing from these specific examples you conclude that green is her favorite color. Scientists use the inductive method, and it is by the observation of a number of specific facts, or of concrete specimens, animals, plants, stones, etc., that many of the splendid discoveries of scientific truth have been made. Below is an example of the way in which a scientist collected facts, studied those facts, and came to a conclusion in regard to their signifi

cance.

Mallet, in his earthquake catalogue, has collected the records of 6,830 earthquakes as occurring in 3,456 years previous to 1850; but, of that number, 3,240, or nearly one half, occurred in the last fifty years; not only because earthquakes were more numerous, but because the records were more perfect. According to the more complete catalogue of Alexis Perrey, from 1843 to 1872, inclusive, there were 17,249, or 575 per annum. In Japan alone there are, on an average, three to four shocks per day. It seems probable, therefore, that, considering the fact that even now the larger number of earthquakes

are not recorded, occurring in mid-ocean or in uncivilized regions, the earth is constantly quaking in some portion of its surface.

JOSEPH LE CONTE: Geology, revised by Fairchild.

Upon what specific, individual facts has Mr. Bryce based his conclusion in the following extract? Make a list of these.

The Relation of Material Progress to Intellectual Progress.

We see under these new conditions less anxiety, less occupation with the hard necessities of finding food and clothing. Work itself is less laborious, because more largely done by machinery and not by mere strength. There is more leisure which can be used for the acquisition of knowledge and for setting thought free to play upon subjects other than practical. The opportunities for obtaining knowledge have been so extended and cheapened that in all civilized countries the elements of instruction can be obtained practically without cost, and higher instruction at a low price by all who are fitted to profit by it. Not only are all books within every one's reach, but the daily instructors of the public proffer at a trifling cost at least as much information as it can assimilate. Transportation has become easy and swift and cheap, so that every one's mind can be enriched and refreshed and stimulated by foreign travel. The dweller in great cities is no doubt more shut out from nature than were his forefathers, but on the other hand he has greater facilities for visiting spots of natural beauty and drawing pleasure from them. Works of art are produced more abundantly, and galleries are accessible in which those of the highest merit can be seen. That a large number of persons are engaged either in producing or in distributing objects believed to possess artistic merit would seem calculated to diffuse widely an appreciation of art and beauty. It may be further sug

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