.......... LESSON VII. MOISTURE: When least in the atmosphere-when greatest-mists and LESSON VIII.-CLOUDS: Cirrus or curlcloud-cumulus or stackencloud-stratus or fall- LESSON IX.-RAIN: Extraordinary showers-unequal distribution of rain-table show- ing the diminution of rain from the equator to the poles-increase in the annual num- ber of the rainy days as we go from the equator explained - fall of rain the greatest near the coasts—and in mountainous districts-rainless regions-rainy seasons in the LESSON X.-SNOW AND HAIL: Forms of snow crystals-limits of snow at the level of the sea- uses of snow-hail, how formed... LESSON XI.-CLIMATE: Meaning of the term-by what causes determined-the latitude of a country - elevation above the level of the sea-line of perpetual snow-climates of mountainous regions in the torrid zone-height above the sea of individual classes of vegetation-vegetable regions of Mount Etna-Teneriffe.. LESSON XII. – CLIMATE (continued): The nearness to, or remoteness of a country from the sea-why America has a colder climate than corresponding latitudes in the Eastern Hemisphere- the slope of a country or the aspect it presents to the sun's course-how observed in the Alps-the position and direction of mountain chains—the nature of the soil-the cultivation and improvement of a country—prevalent winds-annual ........... 65-67 LESSON XIII-CLIMATE (continued): When the greatest cold occurs-table of the cli- mates of different places-isothermal lines-hot regions-warm regions-temperate LESSON III.-Food PLANTS: What plants man has selected for his food-arborescsal food-plants-the food-plants which prevail in the Old World-those which have their origin in the New World-barley, rye, oats-wheat, buckwheat-maize or Indian corn, rice-olive, date-palm-banana-cocoa-nut palm-bread-fruit tree-potato-cassava -arrow root-sugar-cane-coffee-tea-the vine- fig-the cocoa or chocolate ......... ........... ........ LESSON IV.-ANIMALS: Number of species-four grand divisions-vertebrated animals -how subdivided-mammalia-birds-reptiles-molluscous animals-articulated ani- LESSON V.-Distribution of ANIMALS: Diversity in the organizations of animals-pro- ....... 77-81 LESSON VI.-ZOOLOGICAL REGIONS: Different regions inhabited by distinct species of animals, as well as plants-number of zoological regions-European region-African region-region of Southern Africa-of Madagascar of India-of the Indian Archipel- ago of New Guinea-of Australia-of North America-of South America..... 81-82 LESSON VII.-MAN: Number of the human race-their wide diffusion-man's capability LESSON VIII.-RACES OF MEN: All mankind the offspring of common parents-classi- fications of mankind with reference to the color of the hair-with reference to the shape of the skull-the Caucasian race-the Mongolian race-the Ethiopic race-the Amer- PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY. INTRODUCTION. PHYSICAL Geography is a description of the general features of the earth's surface, the organized beings placed upon it, and the operations of the atmosphere by which it is universally surrounded. It relates to the earth as it exists in a state of nature, without regard to political or arbitrary divisions, or to any of those changes or improvements in the world which have been effected by man. 2. It may be divided into four parts, relating respectively to the following subjects: 1. The LAND, or solid portion of the earth's surface; 2. The WATER, or liquid portion; 3. The operations of the ATMOSPHERE; 4. ANIMAL and VEGETABLE life. 3. The First Part describes the extent and distribution of the land; the arrangement of the continents and islands; the magnitude and direction of the great mountain systems; and the situation and extent of the vast plains, upland and lowland, which constitute the most productive portions of the earth's surface. This part also relates to volcanoes, earthquakes, etc., in their relation to the character and aspect of the land portion of the earth. 4. The Second Part relates to the waters of the globe, whether salt or fresh; the origin, course, fall, and termination of rivers; the distribution and magnitude of lakes; and the extent, depth, tidal and other movements of the oceanic waters. 5. The Third Part treats of the operations of the atmosphere which surrounds our globe. It describes the laws which set the winds in motion, and the causes which influence their direction and velocity; it explains the phenomena of moisture, dew, rain, Questions.-1. What is Physical Geography? To what does it relate? 2. Into how many parts may it be divided? Name the subjects to which they relate. 8. What does the first part describe? To what does it also relate? 4. To what does the second part relate? 5. Of what does the third part treat? What does it describe? 6. To what does the fourth part relate? What does it describe? snow, and hail, and the various causes which are concerned in the regulation of climate. 6. The Fourth Part relates to organic existence, or the animals and plants distributed over the globe. It describes the great natural divisions of plants, the agencies which contribute to their diffusion, the food plants, and the regions where they are produced. It presents the orders of the animal kingdom, shows its diversity of organization, and its diffusion, and explains the zoological character of the different portions of the world. 7. The facts of Physical Geography are of a more permanent character than those which relate to the civil or political affairs of mankind. The boundaries of nations are frequently changed, either by conquests or treaties; new countries become peopled, and new states and territories organized; populous cities spring suddenly into existence; and the arts of civilization are rapidly carried to distant quarters of the earth. The varying condition of countries with respect to population, internal improvements, boundary lines, etc., is such as to require a constant correction of maps and statistical works, in order to make them correct exponents of political affairs. 8. Such fluctuations do not belong to the science of Physical Geography The grand and majestic features which God has impressed on the face of our globe-its continents and oceans-its mountains, valleys, rivers, and lakes,- remain now, with all their prominent characteristics, very nearly the same as they have existed for centuries past. 9. It is true that natural agencies are at work, changing to a limited extent the face of nature. Volcanic action has rent the crust of the earth in numerous places, raising some portions and depressing others; some rivers have worked new channels, and formed extensive deltas at their mouths; and, as in Holland, vast areas of land have been rescued from the ocean by embankments and artificial modes of drainage. These and other alterations, considerable as they may appear, are comparatively unimportant as regards the world at large, and scarcely serve to qualify the remark, that the physical aspect of the earth has not greatly changed in modern times. 10. From what is here observed it must not be inferred that the earth has not been the scene of mighty convulsions. An examination of its surface shows that at very early periods most important changes successively took place. To explain those changes, and the causes which have led to the present state or condition of the earth belongs properly to the science of Geology. 11. Physical Geography explains many interesting facts of Civil Geography. It shows where nature has provided for the growth of cities, the peopling of states, the construction of railroads, canals, and other works of internal improvement; it points out what courses on the ocean the mariner must pursue in order to avail himself of its favoring winds and currents; and it explains what pursuits are best adapted to the people of different countries. The influence of mountains, rivers, seas, climate, and natural productions on the industry of people and the progress of nations is so great, that it is scarcely possible for one to possess a thorough knowledge of general geography without first understanding those facts which Physical Geography describes. Questions.-7. What is said of the facts of Physical Geography? Illustrate. Varying condition of countries? 8. Do such fluctuations belong to the science of Physical Geography? 9. How are certain changes of the earth's surface produced? What is observed of these alterations? 10. What does an examination of the earth's surface show? What belongs to the science of Geology? 11. Why is a knowledge of Physical Geography important? THE LAND. LESSON I. EXTENT AND DISTRIBUTION OF THE LAND. HE surface of the earth consists of unequal portions of land and water. It has been estimated to contain about 196,500,000 English square miles. Of this area, the dry land is supposed to occupy about 51,000,000 square miles. Hence it will be seen the fluid portion predominates over the solid in the ratio of about 285 to 100. The extent of each division, however, can not be exactly ascertained, owing to the north and south polar regions not having been fully explored. 13. There is but little regularity in the arrangement of the land upon the globe. In some parts the coast is indented by deep bays and gulfs, in others the land projects into the ocean in capes and promontories, while the islands are scattered throughout the ocean, either singly or in irregular groups. 14. The distribution of the land is very unequal,-by far the greater portion being in the northern hemisphere. It has been calculated that there is about three times as much land north of the equator as south of it, and about two and a half times as much in the eastern as in the western hemisphere. Its distribution through the different zones is as follows: 15. The unequal distribution of the land may be most strik. ingly seen from an inspection of a map of the hemispheres, projected upon the plain of the horizon of London. The hemisphere, in which that city occupies the center, includes nearly Questions.-12. Of what does the surface of the earth consist? How many square miles does it contain? Square miles of the land? In what proportion does the fluid portion predominate over the solid? Why can not the extent of each division be exactly ascertained? 13. What is said of the arrangement of the land? I'lustrate. 14. What is said of the distribution of the land? Which hemisphere contains the greater portion, the northern or southern? How much more land is there in the northern than in the southern emisphere? In the eastern than in the western? all the land on the globe, while the other is almost covered with water. One may therefore be termed the continental or land hemisphere, and the other the oceanic or water hemisphere. 16. THERE are two continents,-the Eastern Continent, or Old World, which includes Europe, Asia, and Africa, and the Western Continent, or New World, which includes North and South America. The Eastern Continent is styled the Old World, from its being the only one known to Europeans previously to the close of the fifteenth century. The terms Eastern and Western refer to the meridian of the Ferro Isles, from which longitude was formerly reckoned. 17. The Western Continent is about 8,700 miles in length from north to south. The greatest breadth of the continent is about 3,250 miles, and its least breadth, in the center, across the Isthmus of Panama, about 30 miles. 18. North America is the northern portion of the Western Continent. Its greatest length from north to south is about 5,600 miles, and its greatest breadth about 3,100 miles. It contains an area of about 7,493,000 square miles. The main body of the continent may be included within a triangle, whose base extends along the northern shores and whose vertical angle is in Mexico. 19. The eastern side of North America is penetrated by branches of the ocean, and consequently presents several peninsulas, and the western projects the long peninsula of California. These indented shores, which give to the continent a coast-line of 27,800 miles, or 1 mile to every 270 square miles of surface, are, with numerous rivers and lakes, the means by which civili Questions.-15. How may the unequal distribution of the land be most strikingly seen? Which hemisphere includes nearly all the land? How termed? 16. How many continents are there, and what countries do they respectively include? Why is the Eastern Continent styled the Old World? To what do the terms Eastern and Western refer? 17. Length of the Western Continent? Greatest breadth? Least breadth? 18. Length and breadth of North America? Area? General form of the continent? 19. What is the character of the coast-line? Extent of coast-line? zation and commerce have been extended, and are now rapidly square miles of surface, thus possessing great facilities for comextending into the interior. 20. Among the numerous indentations of the Atlantic coast south of Labrador, are the Gulf of St. Lawrence, Bay of Fundy, Passamaquoddy Bay, Penobscot Bay, Massachusetts Bay, Cape Cod Bay, Buzzard Bay, Narraganset Bay, New York Bay, Raritan Bay, Delaware Bay, Chesapeake Bay, Albemarle Sound, Pamlico Sound, Gulf of Mexico, Bay of Honduras, etc. 21. South America is the smaller of the two divisions of the Western Continent. Its greatest length from north to south is about 4,600 miles, and its greatest breadth from east to west about 3,000 miles; its area is about 6,679,000 square miles. Its form is triangular. Its unbroken coast-line of 15,800 miles in extent, gives only a mile of sea-coast for every 423 square miles of surface, and presents few bays or even harbors. 22. The slow progress of civilization in South America has been attributed in a great measure to the want of bays and gulfs extending inland and affording maritime advantages to the interior regions This disadvantage of unbroken coast-line is partly counterbalanced by the vast navigable streams of the Orinoco, Amazon, La Plata, and their branches. LESSON III. CONTINENTS (CONTINUED). 23. THE Eastern Continent is the largest mass of land upon the globe. It extends for about 10,000 miles from east to west, and about 7,800 from north to south. It contains an area of about 30,800,000 square miles, or about two and a sixth times as many as the Western Continent. 24. Europe is the smallest of the five grand divisions. Its greatest length from Cape St. Vincent, in the southwest, to the Gulf of Kara, in the northeast, is about 3,500 miles; its greatest breadth, from North Cape to Cape Matapan, is about 2,400 miles. The area of its surface, excluding the islands, amounts to about 3,506,000 square miles. 25. Europe is indented by numerous bays and seas on its BAY OF NAPLES. mercial enterprise. Europe is essentially the region of peninsular formations: it embraces the Scandinavian Peninsula (Norway and Sweden); the Peninsula of Denmark; the Peninsula of Spain and Portugal; the peninsulas of Italy and Greece. 26. Asia is the largest of the grand divisions of the earth. Its greatest length from east to west is about 5,600 miles, and its greatest breadth from north to south about 5,300 miles. It contains an area of about 15,909,000 square miles, or considerably more than is contained in both North and South America. It has a coast-line of 35,000 miles, and excluding the Arctic Ocean, which is scarcely navigable, there will be only 1 mile of sea-coast for every 454 miles of surface. 27. Africa, like South America, is a vast peninsula, being entirely surrounded by the waters of the ocean, except at the Isthmus of Suez, by which it is connected to Asia. Its greatest length from north to south is about 5,600 miles, and its greatest breadth from east to west about 4,700 miles. Its area is about 11,396,000 square miles. In consequence of its peculiar form, with no considerable peninsulas or sea indentations, its coast-line is only 16,000 miles, or only 1 mile of sea-coast for every 712 square miles of surface. On this account it is the most inaccessible, least civilized, and least known to civilized nations. 28. The following table exhibits the superficial extent of each grand division in English square miles, together with the length of coast-line possessed by each (in English miles), and the proportion which the latter of these measures bears to the former : GENERAL REMARKS ON THE CONTINENTS. 29. If we examine the map of the world, we may notice several features of similarity between the two continents. (1.) Each expands into broad extensive flats toward the north, while toward the south they narrow down to points, offering a rude resemblance to an inverted pyramid. 30. (2.) Both attain their greatest breadth about the parallel of 50° N., and are cut off by the ocean at about latitude 70°. 31. (3.) Each has a large portion of its area nearly detached; South America being joined to North America by the Isthmus of Panama, about 30 miles broad, and Africa being appended to Asia by the Isthmus of Suez, about 75 miles broad. 32. (4.) The peninsulas of both continents follow a southerly direction-as Scandinavia (embracing Sweden and Norway), Spain, Italy, Greece, Africa, Arabia, India, Malacca, Cambodia, Corea, and Kamtchatka in the one, and South America, Cali western and southern sides, in consequence of which the coast-fornia, Florida, and Alaska in the other. There are few imline is of great extent, and in proportion larger than that of any other of the grand divisions. Its line of shores extends 20,000 miles; it therefore enjoys a mile of coast-line for every 175 Questions.-20. Principal indentations of the Atlantic coast south of Labrador? 21. What is said of South America? Greatest length? Breadth? Area? Form? Extent of coast-line? 22. Slow progress of civilization in South America? What compensation is there for its unbroken coast-line? 23. What is said of the Eastern Continent? Its length and breadth? Area? 21. What is the comparative size of Europe? Its length and breadth? Area? 25. What is said of its coast indentation? Extent of sea-coast? portant exceptions to this rule; as the Peninsula of Yucatan, in Central America, and of Denmark, in Europe, which project toward the north. Questions. What is said of its peninsular character? What large peninsulas does it embrace? 26. Comparative extent of Asia? Its length and breadth? Area? Coastline? 27. What is said of Africa? Its length and breadth? Area? Extent of coast-line? 29. What may be noticed by examining a map of the world? What is the first feature of similarity mentioned? 30. What is the second? 81. What the third? 82. The fourth? What exceptions are there to the fourth remark? Intered according to Act of Congress, in the Year 1855. by J.H.&Co. in the darks Office of the District Court of the United States for the Southern District of New Yoris. Interior of North America from Gulf of Mexico to Arctic Ocean. Interior of South America embracing Vallies of the Orinoco. Amazon & La Plata. 120 150 Erebus METerror 180 |