588. In the temperate and cold regions the quadrupeds of the carnivorous order are chiefly represented by the lynx, wildcat, weasel, fox, wolf, and bear; the rodents, or gnawing animals, by the porcupine, squirrel, rat, mouse, hare, and beaver; the ruminants, which chew the cud, by various species of the ox, sheep, goat, and deer tribes; and the cetacea, inhabitants of the ocean, by the porpoise, seal, walrus, narwhal, and whale. The herbivorous reindeer and musk ox, and the carnivorous arctic fox and white polar bear, are restricted to the coldest climates, as the herbivorous rhinoceros and elephant and carnivorous tiger and hyena are to the hottest.

589. The animals of temperate and cold districts are generally remarkable for a tendency to be gregarious or social. Wolves often hunt in packs; beavers form colonies; the wild goats and mountain sheep, with the domestic breeds, associate in flocks; the bison, or American buffalo, is rarely seen solitary on the plains of the Missouri, but has membership with a vast herd; and the reindeer, with other kindred species, have eminently the same characteristics. The gregarious tendency of some kinds of fish is observed in the immense shoals of herrings and mackerel that visit our coasts, and the salmon and shad that flock into our rivers at certain seasons of the year. Many kinds of birds are remarkably gregarious, of which the wild pigeon of America is an example.

590. Animals are adapted to different climates and diverse physical circumstances, by clothing, differing in quantity and quality. The quadrupeds of the torrid zone are mostly furnished with a coat of short and thin hair; but with increasing latitudes, soft and abundant fleeces become common; while in still colder regions, the beaver, sable, ermine, and bear are supplied with the thickest furs. The aquatic tribes of birds which swim in the cold waters of high latitudes are supplied with a compact coat of oily feathers, which abound most upon the breast, as it, in swimming, first meets and cleaves the cold fluid. The right-whale and walrus, which permanently dwell in the cold ocean, derive protection from the chilling waters by the enormous amount of blubber, a bad conductor, which surrounds their bodies.

NOTE.-The map-questions relating to mammalia, birds, reptiles, etc., on pages 79 and 80, should be studied before proceeding with the following lesson.

Questions.-588. What animals in the temperate and cold regions represent the carnivorous order? The rodents? The ruminants? The cetacea? What animals are restricted to the co'dest climates? What to the hottest? 589. For what are the animals of the temperate and cold regions remarkable? Illustrate. 590. What is said of the adaptation of animals to different climates? Illustrate. 591. What must not be inferred respecting the species of different countries in the same latitudes?

LESSON VI.

ZOOLOGICAL REGIONS.

591. THE peculiarities which distinguish the animals of the warm, the temperate, and the cold parts of the earth were briefly explained in the preceding lesson. But we have learned, from our examinations of the map, that the same species are by no means universal in countries within the same latitudes or which have the same temperature. Different regions are characterized by distinct species of animals as well as vegetables. It was observed by Buffon that "when America was discovered, its indigenous quadrupeds were all dissimilar to those previously known in the Old World. The elephant, the rhinoceros, the hippopotamus, the cameleopard, the camel, the dromedary, the buffalo (Asiatic), the horse, the ass, the lion, the tiger, the apes, the baboons, and a number of other mammalia, were nowhere to be met with on the new continent; while in the old, the American species of the same great class were nowhere to be seen-the tapir, the llama, the peccary, the jaguar, the cougar, the agouti, the paca, the coati, and the sloth."

592. The earth has been divided by naturalists into ten zoological regions. First. The European region, which comprehends, besides Europe, the borders of the Mediterranean, and even the north of Africa, and extends into Asia, beyond the Ural Mountains and the Caspian. The bear, the fox, the hare, the rabbit, and the deer are among the animals which belong to this district.

NOTE. It is important to bear in mind that the same name is often applied, in different countries, to animals of different species. Thus in North America are found bears, foxes, rabbits, and deer; but they are of a different

species from those of Europe. The buffaloes which roam in vast herds over the prairies of America are very unlike those of India; and the species of India and America differ greatly from the Cape buffalo of southern Africa. 593. Secondly. The African region is inhabited by many animals not found elsewhere. The hippopotamus, for example, the giraffe, the zebra, the chimpanzee and gorilla, and the thumbless apes, are exclusively African. A few of the species inhabiting the northern confines of this continent, such as the dromedary and jackal, are common to Asia. The elephant of Africa is smaller, has a rounder head and much larger ears than the Indian one, and has only three instead of four nails on each hind foot. In like manner, not one of the four African species of rhinoceros agrees with either of the three Indian kinds. 594. Thirdly. The southern region of Africa, where that continent extends into the temperate zone, constitutes another separate zoological province. This region is cut off from the countries of milder climate in the northern hemisphere by the intervening torrid zone. Here may be found peculiar species of the rhinoceros, the hog, and the hyrax, among the thickskinned races; and among the ruminating, the Cape buffalo, and a variety of remarkable antelopes, as the springbok, the oryx, the gnou, and several others.

595. Fourthly. The island of Madagascar, though separated from Africa by a channel only 300 miles wide, forms another

Questions.-What was observed by Buffon ? 592. Into how many zoological regions has the earth been divided? What countries does the European region comprehend, and what animals belong to it? 598. What animals are exclusively African? Which of the African animals are common to Asia? How does the elephant of Africa differ from that of India? 594. What is said of the southern region of Africa? What animais are peculiar here? 595. What is said of the island of Madagascar?

province, all the species, except one, being peculiar. This district is distinguished by the number of the Lemur genus (akin to monkeys) which inhabit it.

596. Fifthly. Another of the great nations of terrestrial mammalia is that of India, containing a great variety of peculiar forms, such as the sloth-bear, the musk-deer, the nylghau, the gibbon or long-armed ape, and many others. Sixthly. A portion of the Indian Archipelago, embracing the large islands of Java, Sumatra, and Borneo. A few of the species inhabiting these islands are common to the continent of India, but most of them are distinct.

597. Seventhly. The islands of Celebes, Amboina, and New Guinea constitute another region, in which are found many marsupial quadrupeds. Of this region Lyell remarks: "As we proceed in a southwesterly direction, from Celebes to Amboina and thence to New Guinea, we find the Indian types diminishing in number, and the Australian (i. e., marsupial forms) increasing. Thus in New Guinea seven species of pouched quadrupeds have been detected, and among them two singular tree-kangaroos; yet only one species of the whole seven, viz., the flying opossum, is common to the Indian Archipelago and the mainland of Australia."

598. Eighthly. When Australia was discovered, its land quadrupeds belonged almost exclusively to the marsupial or pouched tribe, such as the kangaroos, wombats, flying opossums, kangaroo-rats, and others. From recent investigations it has been ascertained that there are no less than 170 species of marsupial quadrupeds, and of the whole number all but thirty-two are exclusively restricted to Australia.

599. Ninthly. North America constitutes another vast zoological province, inhabited by species of animals very rarely identical with those of Europe or Asia. The influence of climate in limiting the range of animals is here conspicuously

displayed. The animals of the State of New York are of quite a different species from those of the arctic regions, and also from those of South Carolina and Georgia. Among the quadrupeds which inhabit the northern part of the continent are the musk-ox, polar bear, and the caribou or American reindeer, besides numerous species of fur-bearing animals. The grizzly

Questions.-506. What forms are peculiar to India? What is said of the species inhabiting the Indian Archipelago? 597. Of the islands of Celebes, Amboina, and New Guinea? What does Lyell remark of this region? 598. What is said of the land quadru peds inhabiting Australia on its discovery? 599. What is said of the animals of North America? Of the influence of climate in limiting the range of animals? Name some of the principal quadrupeds of this division. 600. What is said of South America? Illustrate, 601. How is the number of the human race variously estimated?

| bear, the largest and most ferocious of its kind, inhabits the western highlands; and the American buffalo roams in herds of thousands over the prairies which extend west from the head waters of the Mississippi.

600. Tenthly. South America is the most distinct, with the exception of Australia, of all the provinces into which the mammalia can be classed geographically. The monkey tribe, which are very numerous in the forests of Brazil, differ widely from those in the Old World; many of them having prehensile tails, and all being noted for their widely separated nostrils. The sloths and armadilloes, the true blood-sucking bats or vampires, and many other animals, are peculiar to South America.

LESSON VII.

MAN.

601. THE number of the human race is variously estimated at from 1,000 to 1,200 millions. The impossibility of stating it with any degree of precision arises from the fact, that in but few countries is any enumeration of the inhabitants ever made; while there are vast and populous regions which have scarcely been visited by civilized man. The best opinion appears to be that 1,200 millions is a close approximation to the real number. 602. Mankind, pre-eminently distinguished from the lower animals by the high endowments of reason, conscience, and speech, also differ from them in consisting only of a single spe cies. They are geographically diffused through almost every climate, from the hottest to the most frigid. Under the scorching rays of a tropical sun, upon the banks of the Senegal, the human body supports a heat which causes alcohol to boil; and in the polar regions of northeast Asia it resists a cold which freezes quicksilver.

603. Few lands have been discovered destitute of a native human population. Iceland, Spitzbergen, Nova Zembla, Madeira, the Azores, St. Helena, the Falkland Isles, and South Shetlands, some groups in the Pacific Ocean, as the Galapagos Isles, and a large number of small islets, with all the lands within the Antarctic Circle, were uninhabited when first made known to European nations, but have, in several instances, since been colonized. The range of man extends from the 75th paral lel of north latitude to the 55th of south latitude. The most northern dwellers are the Esquimaux, on the shores of Baffin Bay; the most southern are the inhabitants of Tierra del Fuego. 604. On man's capability of accommodating himself to a great diversity of circumstances, Dr. Paley remarks: "The human animal is the only one which is naked, and the only one which can clothe itself. This is one of the properties which renders him an animal of all climates and of all He can adapt the warmth or lightness of his covering to the tem

seasons.

perature of his habitation. Had he been born with a fleece upon his back, although he might have been comforted by its warmth in high latitudes, it would have oppressed him by its weight and heat as the species spread toward the equator.

605. "Within the tropics, where a vegetable diet is found to be most

Questions.-Most probable number? 602. How are mankind distinguished from the lower animals? What is said of their wide diffusion? 603. What regions were uninhabited when first made known to Europeans? Between what parallels does the range of man extend? 604, 605. Give the substance of Dr. Paley's remarks.

This remark, though not strictly true, is applicable in respect to nearly all the higher animals.

grateful and conducive to health, nature supplies, in the greatest abundance, the most valuable vegetable productions. In the temperate regions, animal food is more or less abundant; and the various kinds of grain, roots,

NATIVES OF TIERRA DEL FUEGO.

609. In the Caucasian race, the head is commonly of the most symmetrical shape, almost round or somewhat oblong; the forehead of moderate extent; the cheek-bones rather narrow, without any projection; the face straight and oval, with the features tolerably distinct; the nose narrow, with the bridge slightly arched; the mouth small, and the

end fruit afford plentiful and wholesome nutriment. As we approach the polar regions, grains and fruit gradually disappear, and animal food becomes more and more exclusively used, until we reach the Samoyeds and Esquimaux, who are unacquainted with bread."

LESSON VIII.

RACES OF MEN.

lips a little turned out, especially the lower one; and the chin full and rounded.

610. The most perfect examples of this variety are found in the regions of western Asia, bordering on Europe, which skirt the southern foot of the Caucasus Mountains, from whence the class derives its name, and which is near what is supposed to be the parent spot of the human race. Here are the Circassians and Georgians, among whom are found the most exquisite models of female beauty.

611. The Caucasian race, of pure blood, comprises nearly all the ancient and modern inhabitants of Europe, except the Finnian and Samoyedian tribes in the north, the Tartar and Turkish stock in the south, the Magyars or Hungarians in the central section, and the Lettons in the vicinity of the Balticall of which varieties are more or less mixed with Mongolian blood. This race also includes most of the inhabitants of southwestern and southern Asia as far as the Brahmapootra River, and of the inhabitants of Africa west of the Red Sea and north of the southern borders of Sahara, together with a great number of Europeans and their descendants who have settled in other parts of the world.

606. WE are informed in the Sacred Scriptures that it pleased the Almighty Creator to make of one blood all the nations of the earth, and that all mankind are the offspring of common parents. Though differing greatly in form, stature, features, and complexion, the members of the human race are found to possess no specific differences, the hideous Esquimaux, the refined and intellectual Caucasian, the thick-lipped Negro, and the fair, blue-eyed Scandinavian being mere varieties of the same species.

607. Classifications of makind have been based upon the differences that exist in respect to the color of the skin, hair, and eyes, and of the form of the skull. Taking the color of the hair as the leading characteristic, there are three principal varieties: First. The Melanie,* or black class, which includes all individuals or races which have black hair. Second. The Xanthous, or fair class, comprising those who have brown, auburn, flaxen, or red hair. Third. The Albino, or white variety, comprising those whose hair is pure white, and who have also red eyes.

608. Taking the shape of the skull as the basis of a classification, mankind are divided into five grand classes or racesthe Caucasian, Mongolian, Ethiopic, American, and Malay.

Questions.-606. What do the Sacred Scriptures inform us? 607. Upon what have classifications been based?

MELANIC, from the Greek melan, black. + XANTHOUS, from the Greek canthos, yellow. ALBINO, from the Latin albus, white.

613. This division embraces the tribes that occupy the north, central, east, and southeast parts of Asia: the natives of Siberia, the Chinese Empire, Japan, Far

ther India, Boothia, and Toorkistan; also a liberal share in the mixed varieties of Europe, previously mentioned, especially those in the north and east; and the Esquimaux on the shores of the Arctic Ocean and Hudson Bay. A portion of this family

Questions. What are the three varieties distinguished by the color of the hair? €08 Into what classes are mankind divided, taking the shape of the skull as the basis of a classification? 609. Describe the Caucasian race. 610. Where are the most perfect examples of this variety found? 611. What people belong to this race? 612. Describe the Mongolian race. 618. What people are comprised in this division?

614. The Ethiopic race have black eyes, black woolly hair, flat noses, thick lips, and a projecting upper jaw. The forehead is retreating, and the head less globular than that of the European. The best examples of this race are the negroes south of the Sahara; in Soudan and Upper and Lower Guinea. The natives of Senegambia and the Kaffres of the southeastern part of Africa resemble others of this race in their jet-black color, and some of their features, but they are taller, more slender, and better proportioned than the rest.

615. The nations commonly classed with this race are widely dispersed; they occupy all Africa south of the Great Desert and Abyssinia, Australasia, and some of the interior portions of the larger East India Islands and the Malay Peninsula. To this race belong also the negroes in America, who were originally brought from Africa, and who have multiplied in the New World to a vast extent.

NATIVE CHILIAN

616. The American race guished by a copper-colored complexion, long, coarse, coal-black hair (which is never crisped like that of the African, or curled, as that of the white sometimes is), prominent cheek bones, broad face, and a scantiness of beard. Their senses of sight, hearing, and smell are remarkably acute. In war and the chase they are indefatigable, but they are averse to regular and mechanical labor. They are cold and phlegmatic in temperament, and manifest an extraordinary insensibility to bodily pain.

617. The native American tribes and nations, excepting the Esquimaux, belong to this class. The Indian tribes of North America are fast disappearing before the spread of the white man, being now confined principally to the unsettled regions west of the Mississippi. Among the most warlike of these tribes are the Sioux and Camanches. The Indians of South America, except those of the Peru-Bolivian stock, are mostly in an abject condition, indolent, and destitute of that nerve and spirit which is known to distinguish their brethren of the north.

618. In the Malay class the top of the head is slightly narrowed, the face is wider than that of the negro; the features are generally more prominent; the hair is black; the color of the skin is tawny, but sometimes approaching to that of

Questions.-614. Describe the Ethiopic race. Where are the best examples found? 615. What is said of their wide dispersion?

tribes of the Indian Archipelago, and all the islanders of the Pacific, excepting those which belong to the Ethiopic varieties.

619. "The diffusion of mankind over the globe has transpired in the course of ages under the influence of various causes. The pressure of population in

one district outstripping the means of subsistence, the love of enterprise, the spirit of acquisition, social disturbances, and foreign violence, have contributed to scatter the human family far from the common center where the race originated. Endowed with intelligence to devise means of surmounting natural barriers-mountains, deserts, rivers, lakes, and the ocean -there is no difficulty in accounting for the geographical range of man. The contiguity of the mainland of northeastern Asia to that of northwestern America, with the nearly-connected chains of the Japan, Kurile, and Aleutian isles intermediate, point to the New World as having received its original population from the Old in that direction. In modern times, adverse winds have driven Japanese junks across from one continent to the other; and, probably, more frequently than we are apt to imagine, crews have been compelled to expatriation by the tempest, surviving its perils, and colonizing distant isles and archipelagoes."-Rev. Thomas Milner.

QUESTIONS ON THE MAP.

HABITABLE LIMIT AND SUBSISTENCE OF MAN.

Where is the most northern permanent habitation of man? What settle. ment exists there? Ans. Port Folk, an Esquimaux settlement. What is its latitude. Ans, About 780 18' north. How far north do the Samoiedes, in Asia, have a permanent abode? Does the permanent habitation of man extend farther south than the islands near the southern extremity of the Western Continent? In what zone do the inhabitants subsist almost wholly on animal diet? [Ste perpendicular line near the middle of the map, marked with the kinds of diet in the different zones.] In what one, on little else than vegetable diet? In what two zones is their diet of mixed animal and vegetable food?

DISTRIBUTION OF RACES, ETC.

To which of the principal races of mankind do the occupants of the arctic regions belong almost exclusively? Does this race overspread the entire northern borders of both the continents? What race occupies the greatest area on the Eastern Continent? In what peninsula does it extend farthest south? What are the inhabitants of Farther India called? What are the principal population on the north of the region occupied by the pure Chinese? What stock inhabit most of central Asia? By what other name is it commonly known? Ans. The Tartar stock. Around the borders of what sea is a limited portion of Europe occupied by the Turkish variety of the Mongolian race? What branch of this race is the most widely spread in northern Europe? What stock occupies the northern part of the Scandinavian peninsula?

What is that branch of the Mongolian race which inhabits the northern regions of the Western Hemisphere called?

Which of the races is most widely dispersed in the mild and warm parts of the world? Which occupies nearly all southwestern and southern Asia as far as the Brahmapootra River and Himalaya and Hindoo Koosh mountains? Does this race possess all Europe except the small part in habited by Mongolians? Is it the chief race in Africa north of the Tropic of Cancer? In the basins of what river and sea does it extend considerably south of this section? What remote extremity of Africa does it occupy? The southeastern and southwestern borders of what great island does it inhabit? What large islands in the vicinity does it wholly or partly over. spread?

The exterior portions of what grand division, except in the south, are

Questions.-616. Describe the American race. 617. What tribes and nations belong to this race? 618. Describe the Malay race. What tribes does this race include?