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far as men are found who communicate their thoughts one to another; they are equally useful to the highest and the lowest; they may often contribute to make ignorance less inelegant; and may it not be observed, that they are frequently wanted for the embellishment even of learning?

In order to show the proper use of this part, which consists of various exemplifications of such differences of style as require correspondent diversities of pronunciation, it will be proper to inform the scholar, that there are in general three forms of style, each of which demands its particular mode of elocution: the familiar, the olemn, and the pathetic. That in the familiar, e that reads is only to talk with a paper in his hand, and to indulge himself in all the lighter liberties of voice, as when he reads the common articles of a newspaper, or a cursory letter of intelligence or business. That the solemn style, such as that of a serious narrative, exacts a uniform steadiness of speech, equal, clear, and calm. That for the pathetic, such as an animated oration, it is necessary the voice be regulated by the sense, varying and rising with the passions. These rules, which are the most general, admit a great number of subordinate observations, which must be particularly adapted to every scholar; for it is observable, that though very few read well, yet every man errs in a different way. But let one remark never be omitted; inculcate strongly to every scholar the danger of copying the voice of another; an attempt which, though it has been often repeated, is always unsuccessful.

The importance of writing letters with pro-
priety, justly claims to be considered with care,
since, next to the power of pleasing with his
presence, every man would wish to be able to
give delight at a distance. This great art should
be diligently taught, the rather, because of those
letters which are most useful, and by which the
general business of life is transacted, there are
no examples easily to be found. It seems the
general fault of those who undertake this part
of education, that they propose for the exercise
of their scholars, occasions which rarely hap-
pen; such as congratulations and condolences,
and neglect those without which life cannot
proceed. It is possible to pass many years with-
out the necessity of writing panegyrics or epi-
thalamiums; but every man has frequent occa-
sion to state a contract, or demand a debt, or
make a narrative of some minute incidents of
common life. On these subjects, therefore,
young persons should be taught to think justly,
and write clearly, neatly, and succinctly, lest
they come from school into the world without
any acquaintance with common affairs, and
stand idle spectators of mankind, in expectation
that some great event will give them an oppor-
tunity to exert their rhetoric.

II. The second place is assigned to geometry;
on the usefulness of which it is unnecessary to
expatiate in an age when mathematical studies
have so much engaged the attention of all classes
of men.
This treatise is one of those which
have been borrowed, being a translation from
the work of M. Le Clerc; and is not intended
as more than the first initiation. In delivering
the fundamental principles of geometry, it is
necessary to proceed by slow steps, that each

proposition may be fully understood before
another is attempted. For which purpose it is
not sufficient, that when a question is asked in
the words of the book, the scholar likewise can,
in the words of the book, return the proper an
swer; for this may be only an act of memory
not of understanding; it is always proper to
vary the words of the question, to place the
proposition in different points of view, and to
require of the learner an explanation in his own
terms, informing him however when they are
improper. By this method the scholar will be-
come cautious and attentive, and the master will
know with certainty the degree of his proficiency.
Yet, though this rule is generally right, I cannot
but recommend a precept of Pardie's, that when
the student cannot be made to comprehend some
particular part, it should be, for that time, laid
aside, till new light shall arise from subsequent
observation.

When this compendium is completely understood, the scholar may proceed to the perusal of Tacquet, afterwards of Euclid himself, and then of the modern improvers of geometry, such as Barrow, Keil, and 'Sir Isaac Newton.

III. The necessity of some acquaintance with geography and astronomy will not be disputed. If the pupil is born to the ease of a large fortune, no part of learning is more necessary to him than the knowledge of the situation of nations, on which their interests generally depend; if he is dedicated to any of the learned professions, it is scarcely possible that he will not be obliged to apply himself in some part of his life to these studies, as no other branch of literature can be fully comprehended without them; if he is designed for the arts of commerce or agriculture, some general acquaintance with these sciences will be found extremely useful to him; in a word, no studies afford more extensive, more wonderful, or more pleasing scenes; and therefore there can be no ideas impressed upon the soul, which can more conduce to its future entertainment.

In the pursuit of these sciences, it will be proper to proceed with the same gradation and caution as in geometry. And it is always of use to decorate the nakedness of science, by interspersing such observations and narratives as may amuse the mind, and excite curiosity. Thus, in explaining the state of the polar regions, it might be fit to read the narrative of the Englishmen that wintered in Greenland, which will make young minds sufficiently curious after the cause of such a length of night, and intenseness of cold; and many stratagems of the same kind might be practised to interest them in all parts When they have read of their studies, and call in their passions to animate their inquiries. this treatise, it will be proper to recommend to them Varenius's Geography, and Gregory's As

tronomy.

IV. The study of chronology and history seems to be one of the most natural delights of the human mind. It is not easy to live without inquiring by what means every thing was brought into the state in which we now behold it, or without finding in the mind some desire of being informed concerning the generations of mankind, that have been in possession of the world before us, whether they were better or worse than ourselves; or what good or evil has been

derived to us from their schemes, practices, and | which the literature of this nation will be in a institutions. These are inquiries which history short time augmented. alone can satisfy; and history can only be made VI. With regard to the practice of drawing, intelligible by some knowledge of chronology, it is not necessary to give any directions, the use the science by which events are ranged in their of the treatise being only to teach the proper order, and the periods of computation are set- method of imitating the figures which are antled; and which therefore assists the memory nexed. It will be proper to incite the scholars by method, and enlightens the judgment by to industry, by showing in other books the use showing the dependence of one transaction on of the art, and informing them how much it asanother. Accordingly it should be diligently sists the apprehension, and relieves the memory; inculcated to the scholar, that unless he fixes in and if they are obliged sometimes to write dehis mind some idea of the time in which each scriptions of engines, utensils, or any complex man of eminence lived, and each action was per- pieces of workmanship, they will more fully formed, with some part of the contemporary his-apprehend the necessity of an expedient which tory of the rest of the world, he will consume so happily supplies the defects of language, and his life in useless reading, and darken his mind with a crowd of unconnected events; his memory will be perplexed with distant transactions resembling one another, and his reflections be like a dream in a fever, busy and turbulent, but confused and indistinct.

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afterwards he read no authors without exacting of his pupil an account of every remarkable exemplification, or breach of the laws of reasoning. When this system has been digested, if it be thought necessary to proceed farther in the study of method, it will be proper to recommend Crousaz, Watts, Le Clerc, Wolfius, and Locke's Essay on Human Understanding; and if there be imagined any necessity of adding the peripatetic logic, which has been perhaps condemned without a candid trial, it will be convenient to proceed to Sanderson, Wallis, Crackanthorp, and Aristotle.

VIII. To excite a curiosity after the works of God, is the chief design of the small specimen of natural history inserted in this collection; which, however, may be sufficient to put the mind in motion, and in some measure to direct its steps; but its effects may easily be improved by a philosophic master, who will every day find a thousand opportunites of turning the attention of his scholars to the contemplation of the objects that surround them, of laying open the wonderful art with which every part of the universe is formed, and the providence which governs the vegetable and animal creation. He may lay before them the Religious Philosopher, Ray, Derham's Physico-Theology, together with the Spectacle de la Nature; and in time recommend to their perusal Rondoletius and Aldrovandus.

When therefore the obligations of morality are taught, let the sanctions of Christianity never be forgotten; by which it will be shown, that they give strength and lustre to each other; religion will appear to be the voice of reason, and morality the will of God. Under this article must be recommended Tully's Offices, Grotius, Puffendorf, Cumberland's Laws of Nature, and the excellent Mr. Addison's Moral and Religious Essays.

X. Thus far the work is composed for the use But it was of scholars, merely as they are men. thought necessary to introduce something that might be particularly adapted to that country for which it is designed; and therefore a discourse has been added upon trade and commerce, of which it becomes every man of this nation to usderstand at least the general principles, as it is impossible that any should be high or low enough not to be in some degree affected by their declension or prosperity. It is therefore necessary that it should be universally known among us, what changes of property are advantageous, or when the balance of trade is on our side; what are the products or manufactures of other countries;and how far one nation may in any species of traffic obtain or preserve superiority over another. The theory of trade is yet but little understood, and therefore the practice is often without real advantage to the public; but it might IX. But how much soever the reason may be be carried on with more general success, if its strengthened by logic, or the conceptions of the principles were better considered; and to excite mind enlarged by the study of nature, it is ne- that attention is our chief design. To the perucessary the man be not suffered to dwell upon sal of this book may succeed that of Mun upon them so long as to neglect the study of himself, Foreign Trade, Sir Josiah Child, Locke upon the knowledge of his own station in the ranks Coin, Davenant's Treatises, the British Merof being, and his various relations to the in-chant, Dictionnaire de Commerce, and, for an his plan. upon numerable multitudes which surround him, and abstract or compendium, Gee, and an improve with which his Maker has ordained him to be ment that may hereafter be made XI. The principles of laws and government united for the reception and communication of happiness. To consider these aright is of the come next to be considered; by which men are greatest importance, since from these arise duties taught to whom obedience is due, for what it is which he cannot neglect. Ethics, or morality, paid, and in what degree it may be justly requir therefore, is one of the studies which ought to ed. This knowledge, by peculiar necessity, conbegin with the first glimpse of reason, and only stitutes a part of the education of an EnglishOther acquisitions are man who professes to obey his prince according end with life itself. to the law, and who is himself a secondary lemerely temporary benefits, except as they contribute to illustrate the knowledge, and confirm gislator, as he gives his consent, by his represen the practice, of morality and piety, which ex-tative, to all the laws by which he is bound, and tend their influence beyond the grave, and increase our happiness through endless duration.

may qualify him to act and judge as one of a free people, let him be directed to add to this introduction, Fortescue's Treatises, N. Bacon's Historical Discourse on the Laws and Government of England, Temple's Introduction, Locke on Government, Zouch's Elementa Juris Civilis, Plato Redivivus, Gurdon's History of Parlia ments, and Hooker's Ecclesiastical Polity.

has a right to petition the great council of the nation, whenever he thinks they are deliberating This great science, therefore, must be incul- upon an act detrimental to the interest of the cated with care and assiduity, such as its impor- community. This is therefore a subject to which tance ought to incite in reasonable minds: and the thoughts of a young man ought to be direct for the prosecution of this design, fit opportuni-ed; and that he may obtain such knowledge as ties are always at hand. As the importance of logic is to be shown by detecting false arguments, the excellence of morality is to be displayed by proving the deformity, the reproach, and the misery of all deviations from it. Yet it is to be remembered, that the laws of mere morality are no coercive power; and, however they may by conviction of their fitness please the reasoner in the shade, when the passions stagnate without impulse, and the appetites are secluded from their objects, they will be of little force against the ardour of desire, or the vehemence of rage, amidst the pleasures and tumults of the world. To counteract the power of temptations, hope must be excited by the prospect of rewards, and fear by the expectation of punishment; and virtue may owe her panegyrics to morality, but must derive her authority from religion.

For this

XII. Having thus supplied the young student with knowledge, it remains now that he learns its application; and that thus qualified to act his part, he be at last taught to choose it. purpose a section is added upon human life and manners; in which he is cautioned against the danger of indulging his passions, of vitiating his habits, and depraving his sentiments. He is instructed in these points by three fables, two of which were of the highest authority in the an

cient Pagan world. But at this he is not to | rest, for if he expects to be wise and happy, he must diligently study the SCRIPTURES of Gon.

Such is the book now proposed, as the first initiation into the knowledge of things, which has been thought by many to be too long delayed in the present forms of education. Whether the complaints be not often ill-grounded, may perhaps be disputed; but it is at least reasonable to believe, that greater proficiency night sometimes be made; that real knowledge might be more early communicated; and that children might be allowed, without injury to health, to spend many of those hours upon useful employments, which are generally lost in idleness and play; therefore the public will surely encourage an experiment, by which, if it fails, nobody is hurt; and if it succeeds, all the future ages of the world may find advantage; which may era

dicate or prevent vice, by turning to a better use those moments in which it is learned or indulged: and in some sense lengthen life, by teaching pos terity to enjoy those years which have hitherto been lost. The success, and even the trial of this experiment, will depend upon those to whom the care of our youth is committed; and a due sense of the importance of their trust will easily prevail upon them to encourage a work which pursues the design of improving education. If any part of the following performance shall upon trial be found capable of amendment: if any thing can be added or altered, so as to render the attainment of knowledge more easy; the Editor will be extremely obliged to any gentleman, particularly those who are engaged in the business of teaching, for such hints or observations as may tend towards the improvement, and will spare neither expense nor trouble in making the best use of their information.

PREFACE TO
ROLT'S DICTIONARY.*

No expectation is more fallacious than that which authors form of the reception which their labours will find among mankind. Scarcely any man publishes a book, whatever it be, without believing that he has caught the moment when the public attention is vacant to his call, and the world is disposed in a particular manner

to learn the art which he undertakes to teach.

The writers of this volume are not so far exempt from epidemical prejudices, but that they likewise please themselves with imagining, that they have reserved their lavours to a propitious conjuncture, and that this is the proper time for the publication of a Dictionary of Com

merce.

erecting mercantile companies, and preparing to traffic in the remotest countries.

Nor is the form of this work less popular than the subject. It has lately been the practice of the learned to range knowledge by the alphabet, and publish dictionaries of every kind of litera ture. This practice has perhaps been carried too far by the force of fashion. Sciences, in themselves systematical and coherent, are not very properly broken into such fortuitous distributions. A dictionary of arithmetic or geometry can serve only to confound; but commerce, considered in its whole extent, seems to refuse any other method of arrangement, as it comprises innumerable particulars unconnected with each other, among which there is no reason why any should be first or last, better than is furnished by the letters that compose their names.

The predictions of an author are very far from infallibility; but in justification of some degree of confidence it may be properly observed, that there was never from the earliest ages a time in We cannot indeed boast ourselves the invenwhich trade so much engaged the attention of tors of a scheme so commodious and compremankind, or cominercial gain was sought with hensive. The French, among innumerable prosuch general emulation. Nations which have jects for the promotion of traffic, have taken care hitherto cultivated no art but that of war, nor to supply their merchants with a Dictionnaire de conceived any means of increasing riches but by Commerce, collected with great industry and plunder, are awakened to more inoffensive in- exactness, but too large for common use, and dustry. Those whom the possession of subter-adapted to their own trade. This book, as well rancous treasures have long disposed to accommodate themselves by foreign industry, are at last convinced, that idleness never will be rich. The merchant is now invited to every port, manufactures are established in all cities, and princes who just can view the sea from some single corner of their dominions, are enlarging harbours,

* A new Dictionary of Trade and Commerce. compiled from the Information of the most eminent Merchants, and from the Works of the best Writers on commercial Subjects in all Languages, by Mr. Rolt. Folio, 1757.

as others, has been carefully consulted, that our merchants may not be ignorant of any thing known by their enemies or rivals.

Such indeed is the extent of our undertaking, that it was necessary to solicit every information, to consult the living and the dead. The great qualification of him that attempts a work thus general is diligence of inquiry. No man has opportunity or ability to acquaint himself with all the subjects of a commercial dictionary, so as to describe from his own knowledge, or assert

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on his own experience. He must therefore often | and that an anvil is forged. But as it is to most
depend upon the veracity of others, as every man
depends in common life, and have no other skill
to boast than that of selecting judiciously, and
arranging properly.

But to him who considers the extent of our subject, limited only by the bounds of nature and of art, the task of selection and method will appear sufficient to overburden industry and disMany branches of commerce tract attention. are subdivided into smaller and smaller parts, till at last they become so minute as not easily to be noted by observation. Many interests are so woven among each other as not to be disentangled without long inquiry; many arts are industriously kept secret, and many practices necessary to be known, are carried on in parts too remote for intelligence.

But the knowledge of trade is of so much importance to a maritime nation, that no labour can be thought great by which information may be obtained; and therefore we hope the reader will not have reason to complain, that, of what he might justly expect to find, any thing is omitted.

traders of more use to know when their goods
are well wrought, than by what means, care has
been taken to name the places where every ma-
nufacture has been carried furthest, and the
marks by which its excellency may be ascer-
tained.

By the places of trade are understood all ports, cities, or towns, where staples are established, manufactures are wrought, or any commodities are bought and sold advantageously. This part of our work includes an enumeration of almost all the remarkable places in the world, with such an account of their situation, customs, and products, as the merchant would require, who being to begin a new trade in any foreign country, was yet ignorant of the commodities of the place and the manners of the inhabitants.

But the chief attention of the merchant, and consequently of the author who writes for merchants, ought to be employed upon the means of trade, which include all the knowledge and practice necessary to the skilful and successful conduct of commerce.

The first of the means of trade is proper eduTo give a detail or analysis of our work is cation, which may confer a competent skill in very difficult; a volume intended to contain numbers; to be afterwards completed in the whatever is requisite to be known by every counting-house, by observation of the manner of trader, necessarily becomes so miscellaneous and stating accounts, and regulating books, which is unconnected as not to be easily reducible to one of the few arts which having been studied heads; yet, since we pretend in some measure in proportion to its importance, is carried as far to treat of traffic as a science, and to make that as use can require. The counting-house of an regular and systematical which has hitherto been accomplished merchant is a school of method, to a great degree fortuitous and conjectural, and where the great science may be learned of ranghas often succeeded by chance rather than by ing particulars under generals, of bringing the conduct, it will be proper to show that a distri- different parts of a transaction together, and of bution of parts has been attempted, which, showing at one view a long series of dealing and though rude and inadequate, will at least pre-exchange. Let no man venture into large busiserve some order, and enable the mind to take a methodical and successive view of this design. In the dictionary which we here offer to the public, we propose to exhibit the materials, the places, and the means of traffic.

The materials or subjects of traffic are whatever is bought and sold, and include therefore every production of nature.

In giving an account of the commodities of nature, whether those which are to be used in their original state, as drugs and spices, or those which become useful when they receive a new form from human art, as flax, cotton, and metals, we shall show the places of their production, the manner in which they grow, the art of cultivating or collecting them, their discriminations and varieties, by which the best sorts are known from the worst, and genuine from fictitious, the arts by which they are counterfeited, the casualties by which they are impaired, and the practice by which the damage is palliated or concealed. We shall likewise show their virtues and uses, and trace them through all the changes which they undergo.

ness while he is ignorant of the method of regulating books; never let him imagine that any degree of natural abilities will enable him to supply this deficiency, or preserve multiplicity of affairs from inextricable confusion.

This is the study, without which all other It will be necessary to learn studies will be of little avail; but this alone is not sufficient. many other things, which however may be easily included in the preparatory institutions, such as an exact knowledge of the weights and measures of different countries, and some skill in geogra phy and navigation, with which this book may perhaps sufficiently supply him.

In navigation, considered as part of the skill of a merchant, is included not so much the art of steering a ship, as the knowledge of the seacoast, and of the different parts to which his cargoes are sent; the customs to be paid; the passes, permissions, or certificates to be procured; the hazards of every voyage, and the true rate of insurances. To this must be added, an acquaintance with the policies and arts of other nations, as well those to whom the commodities are sold, as of those who carry goods of the same

to be watched as rivals endeavouring to take advantage of every error, miscarriage, or debate.

The history of manufactures is likewise delivered. Of every artificial commodity, the man-kind to the same market; and who are therefore ner in which it is made is in some measure described, though it must be remembered, that manual operations are scarce to be conveyed by any words to him that has not seen them. Some general notions may however be afforded: it is easy to comprehend, that plates of iron are formed by the pressure of rollers, and bars by the strokes of a hammer; that a cannon is cast,

The chief of the means of trade is money, of which our late refinements in traffic have made the knowledge extremely difficult. The merchant must not only inform himself of the various denominations and value of foreign coins, together with their method of counting and re