mostly imported from Birmingham. In the stylograph, or fountain pen, the nib is dispensed with, a finely-tapered point connecting with the barrel containing the ink; the first fountain pen was brought out in 1848. See Bunce's Josiah Mason (1890), which contains a sketch of the history of the steel-pen trade.

Penal Laws. See CATHOLIC EMANCIPATION, IRELAND.

Penal Servitude is a sentence for criminal offences which has been introduced in lieu of the sentence of transportation beyond the seas. See PRISONS.

Penance (Lat. pænitentia), in Roman Catholic theology, means both the sorrow for sin and also the sacrament by which absolution is conveyed. It means also the voluntary or accepted self-inflicted punishment by which a repentant sinner manifests his sorrow for sin, and seeks to atone for the sin, and to avert the punishment which, even after the guilt has been remitted, may still remain due to the offence. Penance is believed in the Roman Catholic Church to be one of the sacraments of the New Law. It will be necessary to explain it briefly both under its relations as a sacrament and as a private personal exercise.

Penance as a state of mind is simply sorrow for evil-doing, accompanied with a purpose of amend ment. Penance is the fruit or the manifestation of this sorrow, and it is commonly accompanied or expressed by some of those external acts which are the natural manifestations of any deep sorrow, either negative, as the neglect of ordinary attention to dress, to the care of the person, to the use of food, or positive, as the direct acts of personal mortification and self-inflicted pain, such as fasting, wearing haircloth, strewing the head with ashes, watchi ing of nights, sleeping on hard boards, &c. Such manifestations of sorrow, whether from motives of religion or from merely natural causes, are common among the Eastern races, and are frequently alluded to in the Scriptures. In the personal practice of the early Christians penance found a prominent place, and the chief and acknowledged object of the stated Fasts (q.v.), and other works of mortification which prevailed, was that of penitential correction, or of the manifestation of sorrow for sin.

A still more striking use of penance, however, in the early church, was the disciplinary one; and this, in the Roman Catholic view, is connected with the sacramental character of penance. Any discussion of this purely theological question would be out of place here, and it will be enough to state briefly that Roman Catholics number penance among the Seven Sacraments, and believe it to be of direct divine institution (Matt. xviii. 18; John xx. 23; 1 Cor. v. 5). The matter of this sacrament consists, in their view, of the three acts of the penitent-contrition, or heartfelt sorrow for sin, as being an offence against God; confession, or detailed accusation of one's self to a priest approved for the purpose; and satisfaction, or the acceptance and accomplishment of certain penitential works, in atonement of the sin confessed. The form of the sacrament is the sentence of absolution from sin pronounced by the priest who has received the confession, and has been satis fied of the penitential disposition of the self-accusing sinner. In all these points, of course, they differ from Protestants. Even in the apostolic times the practice prevailed of excluding persons of scandalous life from the spiritual fellowship of the Christian community (see EXCOMMUNICATION); and, without attempting to fix the date, it may be stated as certain, from the authority of Tertullian and other writers, that from a very

PENANCE

early time the persons so excluded were subjected to certain penitential regulations. The class of offenders so treated were those who had been notoriously guilty of the grievous crimes of idolatry or apostasy, murder, adultery, and other scandalous offences. The period of penitential probation differed in different times and places, but in general was graduated according to the enormity of the sin, some going so far in their rigour (see NoVATIAN) as, contrary to the clearlyexpressed sense of the church, to carry it even beyond the grave. In the earlier ages much depended upon the spirit of each particular church or country; but about the 4th century the public penitential discipline assumed a settled form, which, especially as established in the Greek Church, is so curious that it deserves to be briefly described. Sinners of the classes already referred to had their names enrolled, and were (in some churches, after having made a preliminary confession to a priest appointed for the purpose) admitted, with a blessing and other ceremonial, by the bishop to the rank of penitents. This enrolment appears to have commonly taken place on the first day of Lent. The penitents so enrolled were arranged in four grades, called-1. (Gr. prosklaiontes, Lat. flentes) Weepers; 2. (Gr. akroōmenoi, Lat. audientes) 'Hearers; ' 3. (Gr. hypopiptontes, Lat. prosternentes) Prostraters; 4. (Gr. systantes, Lat. consistentes) Standers.' Of these classes the first were obliged to remain outside of the church at the time of public worship, and to ask the prayers of the faithful as they entered. The second were permitted to enter and to remain in the place and during the time appointed for the Catechumens (q.v.), but, like them, were required to depart before the commencement of the solemn part of the Liturgy (q.v.). The third were permitted to pray with the rest, but kneeling or prostrate, and for them were prescribed many other acts of mortification. The fourth were permitted to pray with the rest in a standing posture, although apparently in a distinct part of the church; but they were excluded from making offerings with the rest, and still more from receiving the communion. The time to be spent in each of these grades at first differed very much according to times and circumstances, but was afterwards regulated by elaborate laws, called penitential canons. Still it was in the power of the bishop to abridge or to prolong it; a power the exercise of which is connected with the historical origin of the practice of Indulgence (q.v.). Of these four grades the first two hardly appear in the Western Church. It is a subject of contro versy whether, and how far, this discipline was extended to other than public sinners; but it seems certain that individuals, not publicly known as sinners, voluntarily enrolled themselves among the penitents. All four grades wore a distinguishing penitential dress, in which they appeared on all occasions of public worship, and were obliged to observe certain rules of life, to renounce certain indulgences and luxuries, and to practise certain austerities. In some churches they were employed in the care of the sick, the burial of the dead, and other of the more laborious works of charity. The penitent, in ordinary cases, could only be restored to communion by the bishop who had excluded him, and this only at the expiration of the appointed time, unless the bishop himself had shortened it; but in case of dangerous illness he might be restored, with the condition, however, that if he recovered from the illness the whole course of penance should be completed. The reconciliation of penitents took place commonly in Holy Week, and was publicly performed by the bishop in the church, with prayer and imposition of lands. It

PENANG

was followed by the administration of communion. If any of the clergy were guilty of a crime to which public penance was annexed, they were first deposed from the rank of the clergy, and then subjected to the ordeal, like the laity themselves. This public discipline continued in force with greater or less exactness in the 5th, 6th, and 7th centuries, gradually, however, being replaced by semi-public, and ultimately by private penance. In the 11th and 12th centuries the public penance had entirely disappeared. The nature and origin of private penance is a subject of controversy between Catholics and Protestants; the former contending that it had existed from the first, and that it held the same place even in the ages of public penance for secret sins which the public penance did for public offences. At all events, from the date of the cessation of the public discipline it has existed universally in the Roman Church. The priest, in absolving the penitent, imposes upon him the obligation of reciting certain prayers, undergoing certain works of mortification, or performing certain devotional exercises. These acts of the penitent are held to form an integral part of the sacrament of penance. See CONFESSION; and Morinus, De Pœnitentiâ (1651).

...

By Protestant churches penance is not recog nised; yet a confession was made and a penance inflicted publicly in a church at East Clevedon in Somersetshire in 1882; and there is a curious letter from Dr Pusey to Mr Hope-Scott, then abroad (1844), desiring him to procure a discipline' and 'send it by B. What was described to me was of a very sacred character: five cords each with five knots, in memory of the five wounds of our Lord. . . . I should be glad to know also whether there were any cases in which it is unsafe-e.g. in a nervous person.' An approach to the Roman Catholic polity on the subject was in use among the English Puritans of the 17th century, and more particularly in the Church of Scotland during that and the succeeding century, when it was common 'to make satisfaction publicly on the Stool of Repentance' (q.v.). In Ayrshire the kirk-sessions were accustomed regularly to provide sackcloth suits for ecclesiastical offenders as late as 1781; a heinous breach of the seventh commandment might involve the penitents' standing in the public place of repentance' in church, arrayed more or less completely in sackcloth, every successive Sunday for six months on end (see Edgar's Old Church Life in Scotland, 1885). It does not seem to have occurred to the Reformers or their more immediate successors in the Protestant churches that their system of discipline, with its public rebukes and enforced humiliations of various kinds, was liable to be interpreted in a sense very different from that of a mere expression of sorrow for sin; but the belief is now very general among the most zealous adherents of their doctrinal opinions that in all this they adopted practices incongruous with their creed, and in harmony rather with that of the Church of Rome. Nor do they seem to have perceived that Church Discipline (q.v.), in its proper sense, as relating to ecclesiastical rights and privileges, is wholly distinct from the imposition of penalties by churches or church courts. Penitential humiliations, imposed by ecclesiastical authority, are now no more in favour where church discipline is most strict than where the utmost laxity prevails. The commutation of penalties deemed shameful, for a fine to the poor of the parish, was an abuse once prevalent in Scotland, but never sanctioned by the higher ecclesiastical

authorities.

Penang (Pulo Pinang, Betel-nut Island'), the official but less used name of which is PRINCE OF WALES ISLAND, one of the British Straits

Settlements (q.v.), lies at the northern extremity of the Strait of Malacca, 2 to 10 miles from the west coast of the Malay Peninsula, and 360 miles NNW. of Singapore. Length, 15 miles; breadth, 5 to 10 miles; area, 107 sq. m., three-fifths being hilly. A sanatorium crowns the highest point, 2920 feet above sea-level. The whole is covered with forest and vegetation, cocoa-nut and areca palms predominating. In the low lands the thermometer ranges from 70° to 95°, and at the sanatorium from 60° to 75°. The rainfall averages 111 inches a year. Penang is a great shipping centre for the products of the native states of the Malacca Peninsula. Its shipping in 1888 measured close upon 3,000,000 tons, an increase of 50 per cent. since 1878. The commerce shows an even greater advance in 1888 the imports and exports combined reached a total value of £15,425,458, as against £8,238,064 in 1882. The exports, mostly commodities in transit, averaged £7,110,000 during the three years ending 1889-tin, £2,157,100; spices, £402,000; sugar, £217,500; and tobacco, £80,300, being the principal items. Pop. (1880) 90,951, of whom one-half were Chinese, nearly onefourth Malays, and one-sixth Tamils and others from India. Several thousand Chinese and Indians arrive and depart every year. Georgetown, the capital, is situated at the north-east extremity of the island, and is defended by forts. Pop. about 25,000. Province Wellesley, on the peninsula opposite, forms part of this same settlement adminis tratively. It is 45 miles in length by 4 to 11 in breadth, and has an area of 270 sq. m. It produces tapioca, sugar, rice, and cocoa-nuts. Pop. (1881) 97,324, of whom 58,723 were Malays, 21,637 Chinese, and 10,616 Indians. Another dependency of the settlement is the Dindings, including the island of Pangkor, situated about 80 miles S. of Penang. Pop. 2322. The native raja of Kedah ceded Penang to the English in 1785 in return for an annual pension of £1000. Thirteen years later the same power acquired what is now Province Wellesley, for the purpose of putting down piracy. In 1805 the East India Company, the proprietors of the settlement, made Penang a presidency of equal rank with Bombay and Madras. From 1826 Singapore and Malacca were united with it, but in 1831 the seat of government was transferred from Penang to Singapore.

PENANG LAWYERS is the commercial name for the stems of a species of palm imported from Penang for walking-sticks. They are small and hard, and have a portion of the root-stock attached, which is left to form the handle.

Penarth Beds. See TRIASSIC SYSTEM.
Penates. See LARES.

Pencils. A slender stick of black lead, slate, or coloured chalk, encased in a small round piece of wood, is called a pencil; but the term is also applied to small hair-brushes used by artists, and it was to these that the name was originally given. Some early manuscripts have lines upon them ruled with ordinary metallic lead. When pencils of Black Lead (q.v.), called also graphite and plumbago, were first used is uncertain, but Beckmann points out that they are distinctly mentioned in a book on fossils by Conrad Gesner, printed at Zurich in 1565. The discovery of the use of black lead as a material for writing or drawing with was an important one, since for work where words or lines may require to be frequently rubbed out no other substance has such valuable properties.

For a long time the plumbago from the Borrowdale mines in Cumberland furnished the leads' for the best pencils ever made. These mines have been exhausted since 1850; but when the

graphite from them was available it had, in the ease of the larger and purer pieces, only to be cut into square rods of the proper size for pencils. In order to work up the smaller bits, cuttings, and dust of this precious material, Mr W. Brockedon, in 1843, patented a method by which he first reduced these small pieces to powder, and then, by subjecting it to great pressure in dies from which air is exhausted, produced a cake as solid and compact as the natural graphite, and equally suitable for cutting into leads. For a considerable number of years past, owing to the Borrowdale plumbago being worked out, black-lead pencils, as well as coloured pencils or crayons, have been made by the process invented about the close of the 18th century by Conté of Paris, which consists in thoroughly mixing the black lead with clay, both being first reduced to a state of fine division and most carefully purified. The proportions of graphite and clay vary from two of the latter to one of the former (for light hard pencils) to equal parts of the two ingredients (for the dark soft kinds). Water is added to the mixture, which is repeatedly ground, and then placed in canvas bags and squeezed in a hydraulic or steam press till it acquires the consistency of stiff dough. In this state it is placed in a strong metal cylinder, whose bottom is perforated with apertures of the proper size for the section of the pencil leads. The black-lead mixture, being in a plastic state, is then squeezed out through the apertures by a plunger into continuous strips or threads, which are arranged in straight lengths on a board to dry. After being exposed to a slight artificial heat, the strips are cut into the usual lengths for pencils, and placed in a covered crucible, which is raised to a red heat. When cooled they are ready for use.

An extensive mine of fine graphite was opened at Bogodolsk in eastern Siberia about 1850. Much of this black lead is scarcely if at all inferior in quality to that formerly obtained in Cumberland. Pencils have been made from this graphite in the unmixed state, and Faber of Nuremberg still makes fine pencils of it. These have the words 'Graphite de Siberie' stamped upon them. Dixon's American graphite pencils are made from the plumbago found at Ticonderoga on Lake George, but it is mixed with clay as above described. Workable deposits of graphite are found at several places in Canada. A good deal of what occurs in the township of Buckingham, in the province of Quebec, is almost pure, and is made into pencils. For other localities, see BLACK LEAD.

The wood used for pencils is invariably that of the Virginian or Florida cedar (see JUNIPER), which, being straight grained and easily cut, is remarkably well suited for the purpose. Two rectangular pieces of the proper size, cut out by machinery, go to make a pencil, the one containing the groove for the lead being thicker than the other. After the lead is inserted the two pieces are glued together, and then cut to a round shape by revolving cutters. The operations of cutting out the square fillets of wood and rounding them after they are glued are very rapidly performed. Pencils are sometimes cut in a hexagonal shape. Besides the maker's name, letters indicating the character of the lead are stamped upon pencils. For Great Britain these are H, HH, HHH, B, BB, BBB, HB, and F. H signifies hard; once and twice repeated it means harder and very hard. B stands for black (and soft), and, when repeated, for still blacker. HB, the most generally useful, means hard and black; while F signifies firm. In the United States the letters used differ somewhat. They are H, hard; VH, very hard; VVH, still harder; S, soft; VS, very soft; VVS, still softer,

PENDULUM

for deep black shading; M, medium; MH, medium hard; MB, medium black.

Owing to the multiplicity of processes for reproducing pen-and-ink drawings (see ILLUSTRATION), and the cultivation of that method for book illustration, the black-lead pencil is much less used now than in the earlier half of the 19th century. Drawings in chalk or charcoal, since either material makes a much blacker line, have usually deeper and more effective shading than can be given with pencil. Still, a finished drawing in black lead by a skilled hand has charms of its own, and it is to be regretted that so few of these of any importance are now made by artists of high standing. Coloured pencils are made with ordinary pigments-e.g. Prussian blue and chrome yellow for their respective colours-mixed with white wax and tallow or with gum and tallow, clay being sometimes added; but none of these coloured preparations are heated like those made of graphite and clay. Copying and ink pencils are made of a concentrated solution of an aniline violet added to a mixture of graphite and China clay. For some kinds gum is added, and in such cases graphite is sometimes omitted.

The arrangement of a small rod of black lead, which is kept projecting as it wears away from a tube fitted to a metal pencil-case, and which has since been so much used, was patented by Hawkins and Mordan in 1822. An alloy of lead, antimony, and a little mercury is made into ever-pointed pencils for writing on paper prepared with a suitable surface.

The manufacture of black

lead and coloured pencils is carried on most extensively at Nuremberg, where there are more than a score of factories, employing in all nearly 6000 hands, and producing annually some 250 million pencils, worth about £420,000. Faber founded a branch in New York in 1861. Four years later the Eagle and American Pencil Companies were established, and the other surviving firm, the Dixon Crucible Company, in 1872.

Pendant.

Pendant, a hanging ornament, used in ceilings, vaults, staircases, timberroofs, &c. It is sometimes a simple ball and sometimes elaborately ornamented, and is chiefly used in the later Gothic and Elizabethan styles.

Pendant. See FLAG.

Pendennis Castle. See FALMOUTH.
Pendle Hill. See CLITHEROE.

Pendleton, a north-western suburb of Manchester, wholly within the borough of Salford. Pop. 40,246.

Pendragon. See DRAGON.

A

Pendulum. The two chief varieties are the simple pendulum and the ordinary or complex pendulum. Examples of the latter occur in all the forms of clockwork where a balance-wheel has been dispensed with (see HOROLOGY). small leaden or golden bullet, when suspended from a fixed point by an extremely fine thread, may represent a simple pendulum, provided it vibrates in a small circular arc. Once set in motion, this instrument will move in the same are for ever unless interfered with, because at each swing, when descending through the first half of

26

A

a

PENELOPE

and contraction than metal.) The mercurial pendulum' carries within it a glass cylinder nearly full of mercury, so proportioned in quantity to the weight of the pendulum that when the latter expands downwards by the heat the change is counterbalanced by the upward expansion of the liquid in its jar. In winter, of course, the pendulum and the quicksilver are similarly contracted in opposite directions, to secure a good average length and mark better time. The second form of compensation pendulum is called the gridiron,' because it consists of several upright bars, as in the diagram. If the black bars be, for example, steel, and those between be brass or copper, then by a proper B adjustment of their lengths any change of temperature will not materially affect the time-keeping property of the pendulum. Brass is much more subject to extension and contraction than steel. It is obvious from the figure that when the heat dilates the brass bars they must raise the bob D, and therefore counteract the downward extension of the steel bars, such as BC or be and Aa. For accurate and uniform time-measurement the gridiron has, in the experience of some astronomers, proved superior to the mercurial pendulum.

D

C

Penelope, in Homeric legend, the wife of Ulysses (Odysseus), and mother of Telemachus, who was still an infant when Ulysses went to the Trojan war. During his long wanderings after the fall of Troy he was generally regarded as dead, and Penelope was vexed by the urgent wooing of many suitors, whom she put off on the pretext that she must first weave a shroud for Laertes, her aged father-in-law. To protract the time she undid by night the portion of the web which she had woven by day. When the suitors had discovered this device her position became more difficult than before; but fortunately Ulysses returned in time to rescue his chaste spouse from their distasteful importunities. Later tradition represents Penelope in a very different light, asserting that by Hermes (Mercury), or by all her suitors together, she became the mother of Pan (q.v.), and that Ulysses, on his return, divorced her.

Penguin. This name is applied to a group of birds containing three genera, Spheniscus, Eudyptes, and Aptenodytes-the largest species, the Emperor' A. forsteri, 50 inches in height) and King' (A. pennantii) penguins, belonging to the latter genus. The most remarkable peculiarity of these birds is the flattened wing, which is clad with flat scale-like feathers; the whole limb, unfit for flight, is admirably suited for swimming. The feathers of the penguin-instead of being disposed in feather-tracts, separated by intervals (apteria) upon which no feathers grow, as is the case with all other birds, not excepting even the ostrich and cassowary-form a continuous covering to the body. These peculiarities, coupled with some others in internal structure, mark off the penguins as a very distinct group of birds. By some they are placed in the same group with the auks, or put in a special group (Impennes) by themselves. The penguins are entirely confined to the Antarctic and to the south temperate regions (Patagonia, Cape Colony, Australia, New Zealand), and are aquatic in their habits, as is shown by the webbed feet as well as by the remarkable modification of the wings already referred to. In some situations they are extremely abundant, and make their nests in a common area; the nest is nothing more than a hole in the sand in which the female deposits a

bills. The plumage of the neck is valued by furriers for collars and tippets; and large numbers of 'Johnnies,' as the sailors call them, are slaughtered food, and makes excellent hare-soup;' the belly annually. The flesh though dark is wholesome is loaded with fat. That the penguins are not altogether a modern race of birds is shown by the remains of a species-Palaeudyptes antarcticus -which existed in New Zealand in late Eocene

or early Miocene times. This bird differed from existing penguins in having rather longer wings, and may therefore conceivably have possessed the power of flight; it was a large form like the King Penguin of to-day.

Penicillaria. See GUINEA CORN, and MILLET. Penicuik, a town of Edinburghshire, on the left bank of the North Esk, 10 miles S. of Edinburgh by road, but 16 by a branch line (1872). It has a Romanesque church-tower and large papermills, dating from 1709; whilst 2 miles NNE. are Glencorse barracks (1804-82), originally a depôt for French prisoners. Pop. (1841) 907; (1891) 3562. See Wilson's Annals of Penicuik (Edin. 1891).

Peninsular and Oriental Company carry mails and passengers between Great Britain and India, China, and Australia. The company in its present form was incorporated by royal charter in 1840, although it had then had an existence of three years' duration as the Peninsular Company, which carried mails to Portugal and the south of Spain, and afterwards to Egypt. The 'P. & O.' own a fleet of between fifty and sixty vessels, with an average of 3890 tons each. They carry mails from Brindisi to Bombay, weekly, in the contracted time of 16 days, from Brindisi to Shanghai, fortnightly, in 374 days, and from Brindisi to Sydney, fortnightly, in 35 days. The company also maintains a fortnightly service between Venice, Brindisi, and Alexandria, and run to Naples and Marseilles, whilst in Asia they maintain lines from Bombay to Colombo, thence to Madras and Calcutta, and to Singapore, Hong-kong, and Japanese ports. See the company's Pocket-book and Monthly Handbook.