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ence of the bishops of Rome with so much jealousy, as gladly to extend their protection to those whose labors had a tendency to reduce it; such was, at this time, the case with the court of France in regard to Claude.

31. We now come to the tenth century, which, however, we shall pass with a single remark, viz. that it was the "leaden age" of the Church-the darkest epoch in the annals of mankind.

"The history of the Roman pontiffs that lived in this century," says Moshiem, " is a history of so many monsters, and not of men; and exhibits a horrible series of the most flagitious, tremendous, and complicated crimes, as all writers, even those of the Roman community, unanimously confess." Nor was the state of things much better in the Greek Church, at this period; as a proof of which, the same learned writer instances the example of Theophylact, patriarch of Constantinople. "This exemplary prelate, who sold every ecclesiastical benefice as soon as it became vacant, had in his stables above two thousand hunting horses, which he fed with pignuts, pistachios, dates, dried grapes, figs, steeped in the most exquisite wines, to all which he added the richest perfumes. On Holy Thursday, as he was celebrating high mass, his groom brought him the joyful news that one of his favorite mares had foaled; upon which, he threw down the liturgy, left the church, and ran with rapture to the stable, where having expressed his joy at the grand event, he returned to the altar to finish the divine service which he had left interrupted during his absence."

32. The eleventh century differed but little from the tenth. There were some, however, even in this dark and gloomy period, who dared to protest against the abominations of popery.

The chief point in which this century differed from the tenth, consisted in improvements in learning. The arts and sciences revived, in a measure, among the clergy and monks, though not cultivated by any other set of men. We speak in regard to the western Church; for the eastern, enfeebled and oppressed by the Turks and Saracens from without, and by civil broils and factions within, with difficulty preserved that degree of knowledge, which, in those degenerate days, still remained among the Greeks. Scarcely any vestiges of piety can be traced among the eastern Christians, at this time. The only piety which seems to have existed is to be found in Europe. A few instances of open opposition to the errors of popery are recorded. In the year 1017, several persons in France denied the lawfulness of praying to martyrs and confessors, &c.; and on their refusing to recant, thirteen of their number were burnt alive.

About the middle of the century (1050) arose Berengarius, a person of great learn. ing and talents, who warmly attacked the doctrine of transubstantiation. By this was meant, that the bread and wine used in the Lord's supper, were by consecration converted into the body and blood of the Lord Jesus, and were actually the same as was born of the Virgin Mary, the same as suffered on the cross, and was raised from the dead.

Such was the doctrine of transubstantiation. It was first openly advocated, about the year 831, by a monk named Pascasius Radbert. The doctrine was too monstrous and absurd to be received at once. But it was perceived by some of the popes to be capable of being turned to their account; and, therefore, it received their sanction, and was incorporated into the creed of the Church of Rome.

Berengarius denied the doctrine, and employed his pen powerfully against it. He insisted that the body of Christ is only in the heavens, and that the elements of bread and wine are merely the symbols of his body and blood. The efforts of Berengarius, however, were attended with little success. The priests were unwilling to dismiss a doctrine, which gave them power to convert the bread and wine into the body and blood of Christ, when they pleased; much more unwilling were the popes, for if the meanest priest could effect this, what must be the power of the Roman pontiff!

The doctrine, therefore, continued to be cherished by the Church, and in the year 1215 the belief of it was declared by Innocent III. to be essential to salvation. To the present day, it constitutes one of the great doctrines of the Roman Catholic Church.

33. The eleventh century is distinguished for the final separation between the eastern and western, or, as they were often termed, the Greek and Latin Churches. In the year 1054, an attempt was made to

reconcile the differences between these two great divisions of the Christian Church, and legates were sent, for this purpose, by the Roman pontiff to Constantinople. Both parties, however, were too proud to make concessions, and the negociations were abruptly terminated. Before leaving the city, the Roman legates assembled in the Church of St. Sophia, and proceeded publicly to excommunicate the Greek patriarch, and all his adherents. Since that time, all efforts at reconciliation have been ineffectual, and to the present day these Churches remain separate.

The history of the controversy between the Greek and Latin Churches, it is unnecessary minutely to trace. The first jealousies between them are supposed to have been excited at the council of Sardis, as early as the year 347. These jealousies continued to increase, and a constant struggle was maintained by each for the ascendancy over the other, (Per. IV. Sec. 46,) until the bishop of Rome obtained the victory. About the middle of the ninth century, a controversy which commenced in the sixth, was carried on with great spirit between these Churches, in relation to the procession of the Holy Ghost; the Church of Rome maintaining, that the Spirit proceeds from the Father and the Son; while the Greek Christians maintained that he proceeds from the Father by or through the Son. The heat engendered by the discussion of this doctrine led to other differences; which, multiplying and strengthening, terminated, in process of time, in a total and permanent separation, as above recorded.

DISTINGUISHED CHARACTERS IN PERIOD V.

Observation. A wide difference may be noticed between this and the former period, in respect to distinguished men; especially such as shone in the department of letters. Learning and science found comparatively few friends in the Church of Christ; and consequently few have come down to us, in any manner distinguished for the zeal and piety of a more primitive day. We shall notice some, however, who attracted attention even in this " iron age" of the Church.

1. Mahomet author of the Koran, and the Mahometan imposture. 2. Willebrod, an Anglo-Saxon, a famous missionary about the year 692, the scene of whose labors was Friesland, and adjacent parts..

3. Bede, an Englishman, who flourished about the year 700, cele

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brated for an Ecclesiastical History from the Christian era to his own time, and for several theological works.

4. Alcuin, a native of Yorkshire, England, educated by the venerable Bede, and afterwards called to the continent by Charlemagne, under whose patronage he did much to revive learning and science.

5. Pascasius Radbert, a monk, who, about the year 831, first openly advocated the doctrine of transubstantiation.

6. Claude of Turin, father of the Waldenses.

7. Godeschalcus, a German, known for his defence of the doctrines of predestination and free grace, and for the sufferings which he endured on account of it.

8. Alfred the Great, king of England, who died about the year 900,

distinguished for his love of letters, and for founding, according to some, the University of Oxford.

9. Berengarius, archdeacon of Angiers, in France, a powerful opposer of the doctrine of transubstantiation, about the year 1050.

10. Anselm, archbishop of Canterbury, in 1092, distinguished for his great piety, and for several theological treatises, which were of signal service in that dark day of the Church.

1. Mahomet, Sec. 13, and onward.

2. Willebrod in his missionary efforts was accompanied by eleven colleagues, all of whom, with their leader, greatly distinguished themselves in their efforts to spread the Gospel, not only in Friesland, (a province of the Netherlands,) but also in Denmark, and other neighboring countries. Willebrod was afterwards ordained archbishop of Utrecht, and died among the Batavians, in a good old age.

3. Bede was born in England, about the year 672, and was so distinguished for his piety and humility, that he acquired the surname of "Venerable." He received his education in a monastery, and pursued his studies with so much diligence, that he soon became eminent for his learning. Being inclined to a monastic life, he confined himself chiefly to his cell, where he devoted himself to writing. His principal work was an Ecclesiastical History, which was published in 731. His death occurred about the year 735.

4. Alcuin flourished about the year 770. He received his education under the venerable Bede, and, like his master, was a distinguished scholar and writer. In 793 he removed to France, being invited thither by Charlemagne, by whom he was greatly honored, and whom he instructed in rhetoric, logic, mathematics, and divinity. The latter part of his life he spent in the abbey of St. Martins, at Tours, where he died in 804.

5. Pascasius Radbert is supposed to have been a German by birth. He was a monk, and afterwards Abbot of Corbey. He published his sentiments concerning the sacrament in 831, which, although powerfully opposed by men of more evangelical views, were afterwards adopted by the whole Roman Catholic Church. 6. Claude of Turin, Sec. 30, and onward.

7. Godesehalcus was a monk of Orbais, in Saxony. Mosheim says he rendered his name immortal, by his controversy about predestination and free grace, evangelical views of which doctrines he appears to have entertained. In consequence of his writings, he was thrown into prison by the archbishop of Mentz, where, after being degraded from his offices, he died in 869.

8. Alfred the Great was an excellent prince, and a pious man. He was a Catholic; but not a blind devotee to all the abominations of popery. He lamented the ignorance and irreligion of his times, and proved himself a reformer. Church ministers the most pious and apt to teach, were patronized by him. One third part of his time

he employed in translating the best foreign books into the English tongue, at the same time he engaged in many other learned and liberal pursuits, calculated to promote the moral character of his subjects. Alfred died in the year 900.

9. Berengarius flourished about the year 1050, one of the darkest periods which settled upon the Church. He enlisted himself against the doctrine of transubstantiation, for which he was condemned both at Rome and Paris. For a time, being without friends, he seems to have been frightened into a renunciation of his opinions. But, being convicted by his conscience of his error in so doing, he drew up his confession, in which he shewed that he saw the truth; but in his explanation there was still too great a conformity to prevailing error. The writings of Berengarius, however, after his death, served to correct the opinions of many, and were a formidable weapon, in the hands of truth, against the falsehoods of the Church of Rome.

10. Anselm was a native of Savoy, but came to England in 1092, where he was made archbishop of Canterbury. He was an evangelical man, as his writings testify. He embraced the doctrines of Augustine, many of whose books he copied and circulated. He spent much of his time in meditation and prayer, and seems, on all occa sions, to have had the spiritual welfare of his flock at heart. He was not free from the superstitions of the times; but he entertained more correct views than many of his contemporaries, and did more for the cause of evangelical truth.

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THE PERIOD OF THE CRUSADES AND OF THE PAPAL SCHISM WILL EXTEND

FROM THE FIRST CRUSADE, 1095, TO THE COMMENCEMENT

OF THE REFORMATION, BY LUTHER, 1517.

1. We have now arrived at the latter part of the eleventh century, at which time we meet with the Crusades, or Holy Wars, as they were called. These wars are but little connected with the history of the kingdom of Christ; but, as they arose out of the superstition of the age,-as they form a prominent feature in the history of the antichristian apostasy, and were improved by the popes to increase their influence,-and especially as the relation of them throws some light on the history of Europe, during this benighted period, it may not be without its use to give, in this place, a concise account of them.

2. In the year 637, as already mentioned, (Period V., Sec. 18,) Jerusalem was conquered by the Saracens; but, influenced by self interest, they allowed the thousand pilgrims, who daily flocked to the "Holy city," on the payment of moderate tribute, to visit the sepulchre of Christ, to perform their religious duties, and to retire in peace.

Towards the close of the tenth, and beginning of the eleventh century, the passion for pilgrimages was greatly increased, by an opinion which began to prevail over Europe, that the thousand years mentioned by John, (Rev. xx. 2-4,) were nearly accomplished, and the end of the world at hand. A general consternation seized the minds of men. Numbers relinquished their possessions, forsook their families and friends, and hastened to the holy land, where they imagined Christ would suddenly appear to judge the living and the dead.

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