term; whether, for example, in using the word man, we only employ a term, or whether we have the power of form ing an idea of man in the abstract, without thinking of any individual man; and, in the same manner, whether we can reason respecting a class of substances, without thinking of any of the individuals composing it. Hence arose two sects, whose disputes make a most remarkable figure in the history of intellectual science, namely, the Nominalists and Realists.

The controversies of these sects we now consider as little more than a matter of historical curiosity; but, for several centuries, they divided the learned of Europe, and were often carried on with an asperity amounting to actual persecution. "The Nominalists," says Mosheim, " procured the death of John Huss, who was a Realist; and in their letter to Lewis, king of France, do not pretend to deny that he fell a victim to the resentment of their sect. The Realists, on the other hand, obtained, in the year 1479, the condemnation of John de Wesalia, who was attached to the party of the Nominalists. These contending sects carried their fury so far as to charge each other with the sin against the Holy Ghost." "The dispute," says Mr. Stewart, carried on with great warmth in the universities of France, Germany, and England, more particularly in the two former countries, where the sovereigns were led by some political views to interest themselves deeply in the contest, and even to employ the civil power in support of their favorite opinions. The emperor Lewis, of Bavaria, in return for the assistance which in his disputes with the pope Occam had given him by his writings, sided with the Nominalists; Lewis the Eleventh, of France, on the other hand, attached himself to the Realists, and made their antagonists the objects of a cruel persecution."

66

was

We find some difficulty in believing, in the present day, that the controversy which thus embroiled the continent of Europe in all the rancor of actual persecution, related to the question, whether, in employing general terms, we use words or names only, or whether there is in nature any

Example. Names of the sects-what? These controversies, how now considered? Their violence? Results of it? In what countries chiefly carried on? Connection with politics. Real question at issue?

thing corresponding to what we mean by a general idea. It is well designated by Mr. Stewart as one of the most curious events which occur in the history of the human mind."

The question is one of no practical importance, and when it is cleared from its connection with the ancient doctrine of ideas, appears to be one of no difficulty. Without supposing that there is in nature any actual essence corresponding to a general idea, the truth seems to be, that we do form a certain notion or conception of a quality in which several substances agree, distinct from any one substance to which the quality belongs. Hence some have proposed the term Notionalist, or Conceptualist, as designating opinions distinct from those both of the Nominalist and Realists. But, according to the principles of modern science, we cannot consider the discussion as any thing more than an ingenious arguing on points of no real importance. The process which the mind really carries on in that mental operation to which these remarks have referred, consists simply in tracing relations or points of resemblance in which certain individual things agree, though they may in others be remarkably different. We then give a name to this common quality, and thus form the individuals into a class of which this quality is the distinguishing character. Thus we may take a number of animals differing remarkably from each other, and say they are all quadrupeds. We may take a number of substances very dissimilar in their external and mechanical properties, and say they are all acids. Some of these substances are solid, some fluid, and some gaseous; but the property of acidity is common to them all, and this accordingly becomes the name and the distinguishing character of the class into which we now arrange them.

Character of the controversy? What is the real process in such a case? Examples.

SECTION III.

IMAGINATION.

In the exercise of IMAGINATION, we take the component elements of real scenes, events, or characters, and combine them anew by a process of the mind itself, so as to form compounds which have no existence in nature. A painter, by this process, depicts a landscape combining the beauties of various real landscapes, and excluding their defects. A poet or a novelist, in the same manner, calls into being a fictitious character, endowed with those qualities with which it suits his purpose to invest him, places him in contact with other beings equally imaginary, and arranges, according to his will, the scenes in which he shall bear a part, and the line of conduct which he shall follow. The compound in these cases is entirely fictitious and arbitrary; but it is expected that the individual elements shall be such as actually occur in nature, and that the combination shall not differ remarkably from what might really happen. When this is not attended to, as in a picture or a novel, we speak of the work being extravagant or out of nature. But, avoiding combinations which are grossly at variance with reality, the framer of such a compound may make it superior to any thing that actually occurs. A painter may draw a combination of beauties in a landscape superior to any thing that is actually known to exist; and a novelist may delineate a more perfect character than is met with in real life. It is remarked by Mr. Stewart, that Milton, in his garden of Eden, "has created a landscape more perfect, probably, in all its parts, than has ever been realized in nature, and certainly very different from any thing that this country exhibited at the time when he wrote.

"It

is a curious remark of Mr. Walpole," he adds, “that Milton's Eden is free from the defects of the old English garden, and is imagined on the same principles which

Nature of imagination? Examples. How much fictitious, and how much true? Superiority of such creations. Examples. Stewart's remark?

it was reserved for the present age to carry into execution."

The mode of artificial combination which results from the exercise of imagination is applicable chiefly to four kinds of composition.

1. Fictitious narrative, in which the author delineates imaginary scenes or transactions; and paints imaginary characters, endowing them with such qualities as may suit the purpose which he has in view.

2. Composition or verbal address, directed to the passions, and intended to excite particular mental emotions. To this head are referable many of the combinations of the poet, and addresses calculated to operate upon the feelings of a popular assembly; also, those which derive their character from the language of trope and metaphor. The genius of the orator, and the inventive powers of the poet, are exhibited in the variety and the novelty of the analogies, resemblances, illustrations, and figures, which he thus brings to bear upon his subject.

3. Those unexpected and peculiar associations which form the basis of wit and humor.

4. Combinations of objects of sense, calculated to pro- . duce mental emotions of a pleasurable or painful kind, as our impressions of the sublime, the beautiful, the terrible, or the ludicrous. The combinations of this class are chiefly referable to the head of objects of taste, or the fine arts; and are exemplified in the inventions of the painter and the statuary, in decorative architecture and artificial gardening, -we may add, theatrical exhibitions and music.

Si

The facility of rapidly forming in these several departments combinations calculated to produce the effect which is intended, constitutes what we call inventive genius. milar powers of invention, founded on an exercise of imagination, may also be applied to the investigations of science. It may be employed, for example, in the contrivance of experiments calculated to aid an investigation or to illustrate a doctrine; and in the construction of those legitimate hypotheses which have often led to the most important discoveries.

Kinds of composition, how many and what? First kind, what? Second kind? How different from the first? Third kind? Fourth kind? Examples. Inventive genius, what? How applicable to science?

The union of elements, in all such productions of the imagination, is regulated by the knowledge, the taste, and the intellectual habits of the author, and, we must add, by his moral principles. According to the views, the habits, and the principles of him who frames them, therefore, they may either contribute to moral and intellectual improvement, or they may tend to mislead the judgment, vitiate the taste, and corrupt the moral feelings.

Similar observations apply to the conduct of the imagination in individuals, and its influence in the cultivation of moral and intellectual character. There is certainly no power of the mind that requires more cautious management and stern control; and the proper regulation of it cannot be too strongly impressed upon the young. The sound and proper exercise of it may be made to contribute to the cultivation of all that is virtuous and estimable in human character. It leads us, in particular, to place ourselves in the situation of others, to enter into their feelings and wants, and to participate in their distresses. It thus tends to the cultivation of sympathy and the benevolent affections; and promotes all those feelings which exert so extensive an influence in the duties of friendship and the harmonies of civil and social intercourse. We may even say that we exercise imagination when we endeavor to act upon that high standard of morals which requires us 66 to do to others as we would that they should do unto us:" for in this mental act we must imagine ourselves in the situation of other men, and, in their character, judge of our own conduct towards them. Thus a man deficient in imagination, though he may be free from any thing unjust or dishonorable, is apt to be cold, contracted, and selfish, regardless of the feelings and indifferent of the distresses of others. Further, we may be said to exercise imagination when we carry our views beyond present and sensible objects, and endeavor to feel the power of "things which are not seen," and the reality of scenes and times which are yet to come. On the other hand, imagination may be employed for calling into being evils which have no existence, or for exaggerating those which

The exercise of imagination, how regulated? Effects? Importance of a proper regulation of it? Its useful effects? Moral effects of a deficiency of imagination? Perverted imagination. Its effects?