ed from the conformity it bears to the globe itself. This projection was proposed by Senex, in which the meridians are inclined, the parallels equidistant and curvilinear, and the rhomb-lines real spirals, as on the surface of the globe. From this last property, it is evident it can be of very little use in navigation; as a map, however, it has its advantages. Construction of Charts. 1. Of the plane chart.-The number of degrees of latitude which the chart is intended to contain, and the extent from east to west being fixed upon, a line is to be drawn near the side or end of a sheet of paper, in length equal to the whole length of the chart from north to south; and this line is to be divided into degrees, and numbered accordingly. From each end of this line perpendiculars are to be drawn, and made equal to the intended extent of the chart from east to west, and their extremities are to be joined by a straight line. If the chart is to commence at or near the equator, and to extend only a few degrees of latitude, the divisions of the parallels may be equal to those of the meridian; but if the chart begins at any considerable distance from the equator, it will conduce to accuracy, to make the length of each degree of the parallel equal to the co-sine of the mean latitude, the radius being 60 minutes; or the extreme parallels may be divided according to the above proportion, and in that case it will become a reduced chart. Meridians and parallels are there to be drawn at convenient distances. A scale is now to be made of stiff paper or pasteboard, equal in length to the extent of the chart from east to west, and divided and numbered accordingly. By this scale, the positions of those places contained within the limits of the chart are very easily laid down, by placing the divided edge of the scale over the latitude of the given place; and under the given longitude, a mark being made will represent the position of the place on the chart. A compass is to be inserted in any convenient place of the chart, an arrow shewing the direction of the flood tide or current. The times of high water at full and change are to be marked in their proper places, expressed in Roman characters; sounding and quality of the ground at bottom, the leading marks to avoid dangers, &c. II. Of a Mercator's chart.-A Mercator's chart, for any given portion of the surface of the globe, is constructed as follows: the limit of the proposed chart is first to be determined; that is, the number of degrees of latitude and longitude which it is to contain, and the degree of latitude and longitude of its commencement. Find the meridional parts answering to each degree of latitude, within the intended limits of the chart, and take the difference between each, and that corresponding to the least degree of latitude in the chart; and reduce these differences to degrees by dividing by 60. A parallel, representing that of the least latitude, is to be drawn; upon which the number of degrees in the proposed difference of longitude, from a scale of equal parts, is to be laid off, and divided into degrees, and smaller portions of, if convenient, and numbered at each fifth or tenth degree. From each end of this pa rallel a perpendicular is to be drawn, and made equal to the difference of the meri. dional parts of the extreme latitudes taken from the divided parallel; and the ends of these meridians are to be joined by a straight line, which will represent the other extreme parallel, and which is to be divided and numbered in the same manner as the first drawn parallel; the meridians are then to be divided into degrees, and numbered at every fifth or tenth degree. Take the meridional difference of latitude between the beginning of the chart, and the next fifth or tenth degree of latitude from the divided parallel, and lay it off from the first parallel on each of the scale meridians, and join these points by a straight line. In like manner the meridional difference of latitude, answering to each successive interval of five or ten degrees, is to be taken from the first drawn parallel and laid off, and the corresponding parallels are to be drawn and numbered accordingly, and the intermediate spaces are to be subdivided. If the chart is upon a large scale, the meridional difference of latitude answering to eachde. gree is to be laid off from the least parallel. If the chart is intended to be upon a larger scale, equi-multiples of the intervals are to be taken, such as will answer to the proposed extent of the chart. A slip of strong paper is to be divided, and numbered in the same manner as the first drawn parallel. Now each place within the limits of the chart is to be laid down, by placing the slip of paper so, that its extreme points of division may be at the latitude of the given place on each meridian; then, under the longitude of the place, a mark is to be made, which will represent the position of that place. In like manner all the places on the coast are to be laid down and connected by observations made on the coast or if no sketch had been previously made, the contour of the coast is to be drawn agreeable to the best charts. Meridians and parallels are to be drawn through every fifth or tenth degree of latitude and longitude, and extended to the coast. A compass is to be inserted in some convenient part of the chart, and the points extended to the land: an anchor is to be drawn where there is good an. choring ground, and in places where it is safe only to stop a tide, an anchor without a stock is to be laid down. The soundings, the quality of the ground, the times of high water at full and change, &c. are to be marked in their proper places. CHARTS, manner of using.-The principal use of a chart is, to find the course and distance between any two places within its limits, and to lay down the place of a ship on it, so that the position of the ship with respect to the intended port, the adjacent land, islands, &c. may be readily perceived. To find the latitude of a place on the chart. Rule-Take the nearest distance between the given place and the nearest St. Sebastian, both in the island of Madagascar. The edge of a scale being laid over the two places, then, by moving the compass as directed, the course will be found to be N. E. E., and the interval between them will measure 105 leagues. The course and distance sailed from a known place being given, to find the ship's place on the Chart. Rule.-Lay the edge of a scale over the place sailed from, parallel to the given course; then take the given distance from the scale on the chart, and lay it off from the given place by the edge of the scale, and it will give the point on the chart representing the place on the ship. Example.-The correct course of a ship from Cape St. Maria, on the north side the entrance of the river La Plata, was N. E. by E. and the distance 238 leagues. Required the place of the ship on the chart. The edge of the scale being laid over Cape St. Maria, in a N. E. by E. direction, and the distance 238 leagues, laid off from Cape St. Maria by the edge of the scale, will give the place of the ship, which will be found to be in the latitude 28° 15' S. Chart. parallel of latitude, which being applied To find the longitude of a place on the the same way on the divided meridian, from the point of intersection of the parallel and meridian, will give the latitude of the proposed place. Example-Required the latitude of Port Louis, in the isle of France. The least distance between Port Louis and the nearest parallel, being laid the same way on the meridian, from the extremity of that parallel, will reach to 20° 8' S., the latitude required. To find the course and distance between two given places on the chart. Rule.-Lay the edge of a scale over the given places, and take the nearest distance between the centre of any of the compasses on the chart and the edge of the scale; move this extent along, so as one point of the compass may touch the edge of the scale, and the straight line joining the points may be perpendicular thereto; then will the other point shew the course; and the interval between the places being applied to the scale will give the required distance. Example. Required the course and distance from Cape St. André to Cape VOL. III Rule. Take the least distance between the given place and the nearest meridian, which being laid off on the equator, or divided parallel, from the point of intersection of the parallel and meridian, will give its longitude. Example.-Required the longitude of Funchal in the island of Madeira. The least distance being taken between Funchal and the nearest meridian,and laid off from the intersection of that meridian with the divided parallel, will give 17° 6' W., the longitude required. CHA place where the point of the compass 15° 52′ N. rested, and the point of intersection of the scale, and parallel, being applied to the divided parallel, will measure 11° 24′, or 684 miles. 12° 14' N. 3° 38'218 M. 2. When the given places are under the same parallel. Rule-If that parallel is the equator, the difference, or sum of their longitudes is the distance between them. If not, take half the interval between the given places, lay it off on the meridian on each side of the given parallel, and the intercepted degrees will be the distance between the places. If the given parallel is near the north or south extremity of the chart, the following method may be used. Take an extent of a few degrees from that part of the meridian where the given parallel is the middle of the extent; then the number of extents, and parts of an extent, contained between the given places, being multiplied by the length of an extent, will give the required distance. Example.-Required the distance between Cape Canton and Funchal, both lying nearly in the same parallel. By proceeding as directed above, the distance will be found to be 6° 44', or 404 miles. 3. When the given places differ both in latitude and longitude. Rule. Find the difference of latitude between the given places, and take it from the equator or graduated parallel; then lay the edge of a scale over the given places, and move or slide one point of the compass along the edge of the scale, until the other point just touches a parallel. Now, the distance between the place where the point of the compass rested, and the point of intersection of the edge of the scale and parallel being applied to the equator, or divided paral lel, will give the distance between the places in degrees and parts of a degree; which, multiplied by 60, will give the distance in miles. Example-Required the distance between Cape Finisterre and Porto Santo. Take the difference of latitude between the given places, viz. 9° 54′, from the graduated parallel, and move one point of the compass along the edge of the scale, laid previously over these places, until the other point just touches a parallel: now the interval between the CHARTA, magna, an ancient instru ment, containing several privileges and liberties granted to the church and state by Edward the Confessor, together with others relating to the feudal laws of William the Conqueror, granted by Henry I. all confirmed by the succeeding princes. See MAGNA CHARTA. CHARTER, in law, a written instrument or evidence of things acted between one person and another. CHARTER-party, is a contract under hand and seal, executed by the freighter and the master or owner of the ship, containing the terms upon which the ship is hired to freight; the masters and owners usually bind themselves, the ship, tackle, and furniture, that the goods freighted shall be delivered (dangers of the sea excepted) well conditioned, at the place of the discharge; and they also covenant to provide mariners, tackle, &c. and to equip the ship complete and adequate to the voyage. The freighter stipulates to pay the consideration money for the freight; and penalties are annexed to enforce the reciprocal covenants. A charter-party is the same in the civil law as an indenture at common law and is distinguished from a bill of lading, inasmuch as the former adjusts the term of the freight, and the latter ascertains the contents of the cargo. CHARTERS of community, were certain privileges, first obtained by violence of purchase, and afterwards freely bestowed by the inhabitants of towns and cities by emperors, kings, and barons; wherewere enfranchised, all marks of servitude abolished, and these cities, &c. were formed into corporations and bodies politic, to be governed by a council and magistrates of their own nomination. The leges was Lewis the Gross in France, first person who conferred these priviabout the beginning of the twelfth century; and his example was soon very generally followed. These charters convey a very striking representation of the wretched condition of cities previous to the institution of communities, when they were subject to the judges appointed by the superior lords, of whom they held, and had scarcely any other law but their will. CHARTER of the forest, is that wherein the laws of the forest are comprised and established. In the time of King John, and that of his son, Henry III. the rigours of the feudal tenures and the forest laws were so warmly maintained, that they occasioned many insurrections of the barons or principal feudatories, which at last produced this effect, that first King John, and afterwards his son, consented to the two famous charters of English liberties, Magna Carta, and Carta de Foresta. The latter, in particular, was well calculated to redress many grievances and encroachments of the crown, in the execution of forest law. This charter, as well as the other, was established, confirmed, and settled, in the reign of Edward I. CHARTER governments of the British colonies, are in the nature of civil corpora tions, with the power of making by-laws for their own interior regulation, not contrary to the laws of England; and with such rights and authorities as are specially given them in their several charters of incorporation. The form of government is borrowed from that of England. They have a governor named by the King, (or in some proprietary colonies by the proprietor,) who is his representative or deputy. They have courts of justice of their own, from whose decision an appeal (as some say, in the nature of a reference by way of arbitration) lies to the King in council in England. Their general Assemblies, which are their House of Commons, together with their Council of State, being their Upper House, with the concurrence of the King, or his representative the Governor, make laws suited to their own emergencies. But it is particularly declared, by stat. 7 and 8 William III. c. 22. that all laws, by-laws, usages, and customs, which shall be in practice in any of the plantations, repugnant to any law made, or to be made, in the king dom of Great Britain, relative to the said plantations, shall be utterly void and of none effect. CHEAT, in law, is one who defrauds, or endeavours to defraud another of his known right, by means of some artful device, contrary to the plain rules of common honesty. By the 30 Geo. II. all persons, who, knowingly or designedly, by false pretence or pretences, shall obtain from any person, money, goods, wares, merchandises, with intent to cheat or defraud any person of the same, or shall knowingly tender or deliver any letter or writing, with or without a name subscribed thereto, or signed with a fictitious name, threatening to accuse any person of a crime punishable by law with death, ог transportation, pillory, or other infamous punishment, with intent to extort from him any money, or other goods, shall be deemed offenders against law and the public peace; and the court, before whom any such offender shall be tried, shall, on conviction, order him to be fined and imprisoned, or be put in the pillory, or publicly whipped, or to be transported for se ven years. CHECK, or CHECK roll, a roll or book, wherein is contained the names of such persons as are attendants and in pay to the King, or other great personages, as their household servants. CHECKS, or drafts on bankers, are instruments, by means of which a creditor may assign to a third person, not originally party to the contract, the legal as well as equitable interest in a debt raised by it, so as to vest in such an assignee a right of action against the original debtor. These instruments are uniformly made payable to bearer, which constitutes a characteristic difference between them and bills of exchange; and the legislature has considered them in a more favourable point of view,by exempting them from the stamp duties. They are equally negotiable with bills. When given in payment, they are considered as cash; and, it is said, may be declared upon as a bill of exchange; and the moment this resemblance begins, they are governed by the same principles of law as bills of exchange. Checks payable on demand, or when no time of payment is expressed, are payable on presentment, without any indulgence or days of grace; but the presentment should be made within a reasonable time after the receipt, otherwise the party upon whom the check is drawn will not be responsible, and the person from whom the holder received it will be discharged. Therefore, where circumstances will allow of it, it is advisable for the holder of a check to present it on the same day it is received. CHECKY, in heraldry, is when the shield, or a part thereof, as a bordure, &c. is chequered, or divided into chequers or squares, in the manner of a chess-board. CHEEK, in anatomy, that part of the face situated below the eyes, on each side. See ANATOMY. CHEEKS, among mechanics, are almost all those pieces of their machines and instruments that are double, and perfectly alike; as the cheeks of a mortar, which are made of strong wooden planks, of a semicircular form, bound with thick plates of iron, and fixed to the bed with four bolts; these cheeks rise on each side the mortar, and serve to keep it at what elevation is given it: the, cheeks of a printing-press are its two principal pieces placed perpendicular and parallel to each other, and serving to sustain the three sommers, &c. CHEEKS, in ship-building, two pieces of timber, fitted on each side of the mast, at the top, serving to strengthen the mast there, and having holes in them, called hounds, through which the ties run to hoist the vards. CHEESE is made from the curd formed by mixing rennet with milk, the quality of the cheese depending on that of the milk used on the occasion. Various processes are recommended, but to detail them would be a voluminous task; we shall, however, state, in as few words as the subject will admit, how cheese is usually made. The milk being previously warmed, is turned, by the mixture of rennet, into an apparently solid mass. This being cut across with a brass knife, (for iron is supposed by many to give a bad flavour,) occasions the curd to separate from the whey: the latter is given to pigs, or is sold as a beverage, while the former is put into a press made for the purpose, and all the whey is completely separated, falling through holes in the bottom of the press; while the curd is kept in by a coarse kind of cloth made principally for that purpose. The curd must be repeatedly cut into minute squares, and be as often subjected to the press. When mixed for the last time, salt is added: and if any colour is to be given, a small quantity of annatto, or other colouring matter, is put in; though this is sometimes done in the early stages of the manufacture. Many put in sageleaves, or mix plain and various-coloured curds together, according to fancy; the goodness of the cheese will, however, always depend on the richness of the milk. When the cheese has been kept a proper time in the mould and will bear handling, it is taken out, and put on a shelf; carefully turning it every day, so that it may be dried alike; it is next rubbed with green nettles, &c. and by some with salt, under the opinion that these help to ripen it. Every county has some favourite recipe for the operation, and all alike claim the palm of pre-eminence: we may, perhaps, be correct in saying, that in each there are both excellent and execrable cheeses made. Cheshire, Gloucester, Wiltshire, and Stilton, seem to be the most approved, while, on the other hand, that made in Suffolk, being usually from skimmed or flitted milk, and, consequently, deprived of all the butyrous part, is considered proverbially poor. As an article of diet, cheese cannot, on the whole, be accounted nourishing: that which is old, crumbling, and rich, is assuredly a powerful aid to digestion, and has been given with great success in cases where children have ate incautiously of crude fruits; but such as is dry, and of a sour taste, may be justly ranked among the minor poisons. The rennet which is used for turning the milk is nothing more than the stomach of a young calf, or of a pig, in which the gastric juices are preserved, by means of a handful or two of salt. A very small quantity of this preparation will suffice to many gallons of milk; and as the rennet bag, as it is called, may be emptied, it may be once or twice replenished, though the liquor will not be so strong. Some dry the rennet-bag, after having been thus used, and throw a piece in to turn the milk. See MILK. CHEIRANTHUS, in botany, a genus of the Tetradynamia Siliquosa class and order. Natural order of Siliquose Cruciwith formes. Essential character: germ a glandulous toothlet on each side; calyx closed, with two leaflets, gibbous at the base; seeds flat. There are twenty-two species, of which C. cheiri, common wallflower, is about a foot high, with a woody stem; on walls it is seldom more than eight inches, with very tough roots and firm stalks; the leaves short and sharppointed; the flowers are well known, being one of those which have been cultivated for their fragrancy time immemorial in our gardens. C. incanus, stock gilliflower, is nearly the same height, shrubby, with spear-shaped leaves, which are frequently waved on their edges, and turn downward at the extremity; the side branches are each terminated by a loose spike of flowers, each having a woolly calyx, and four large roundish petals, indented at the end. These usually appear in May and June. The flowers of this sort vary in their colour; some are pale, and others of a deep red; the latter are generally most esteemed. If the seed be well chosen, frequently three parts in four of the plants will be doubled. C. annuus, annual stock gilliflower, or tenweek stock, is two feet high, with a round, smooth, stalk, dividing into many branches at top. The flowers are produced in loose spikes at the ends of the |