been lost during the period of the king's minority. But King Henry was no match either in war or in diplomacy for his great rival, Saint Louis of France. Louis IX had inherited all the great qualities of kingship that his grandfather Philip Augustus had possessed; in addition he had certain personal virtues that his grandfather never cared to possess. He defeated Henry's attempt to regain Poitou, and the boundary of English Aquitaine was finally moved one hundred miles south from the Loire to the Charente. On other sides, too, Henry's French territories were pared away, till only a remnant remained of Eleanor's grand duchy. From now on for a hundred years, the possessions of the English kings in France were usually known as Gascony.

The failure in Poitou.

The Sicilian venture.

Since the days of Hildebrand there had been an almost continuous strife between the papacy and the emperors, who claimed sovereignty over northern Italy and some authority over the papal kingdom itself. In the thirteenth century the emperor also came into possession of Naples and Sicily, and the pope now found a hostile dynasty on both borders of his kingdom. After the death of Frederick II (1250), the pope made an effort to break up this dangerous connection between northern and southern Italy by finding a new king for Naples and Sicily. The crown was offered to Henry's brother Richard and even to Henry himself; but the English king finally accepted it for his younger son Edmund, and in return for the honor he offered to help the pope with a subsidy of 140,000 marks.

97. The Opposition of the Barons: 1 Simon de Montfort. These two ventures, the Gascon and the Sicilian, were as futile as they were expensive and the barons objected to the contributions levied. The great chronicler Matthew Paris tells us that when the subject of the Sicilian subsidy was broached in the Great Council, "the ears of all men tingled and their hearts stood still with amazement." 2 The barons finally found a leader in Simon de Montfort,3 the king's brother-in-law, who was 1 Cheyney, No. 126. 2 Kendall, pp. 80-81. 3 Tuell and Hatch, No. 17.

THE "MISE OF AMIENS;

"" BARONIAL REVOLT 115

Montfort.

also a Frenchman. It is not likely that in his opposition to King Henry Simon de Montfort was inspired with Simon de the highest motives. Some years before, the king had sent him to Gascony as governor, but his methods were not enjoyed by the Gascon people, who had serious objections to efficient government of any sort. Henry III gave a ready ear to the complaints of his subjects and Simon lost the royal favor. Soon he was enrolled among the king's most active opponents.

with

Parliament.

98. The "Mise of Amiens;" the Baronial Revolt. The chief grievances of the barons were the influence of foreigners in the government and the heavy taxes that were levied for purposes that brought no advantage to the nation. Several attempts were made to limit the royal power by giving the king a council appointed by the assembled barons, the most notable of which was a series of provisions drawn up at Oxford at an angry meeting of the barons known as the Mad Parliament. According to the provisions of Oxford the The Mad king was to take no measure of importance out consulting a committee of fifteen men chosen by the king and the barons; but neither this nor any other scheme of reform seemed workable. The king was incompetent, but the barons were selfish, and it is unlikely that they would have given England good government. The king soon set the "Provisions" aside and the result was civil war. Finally Louis IX as it was agreed to refer the matter in dispute to arbitrator. Louis IX of France as arbitrator. Saint Louis was a king who was just by nature; but he believed that royalty should exercise wide authority, and to him any plan to limit the king's powers seemed an abomination. By a decision known as the "Mise of Amiens" (1264), he found Henry III's position correct and proper in every respect.

1264.

The barons refused to accept this decision and prepared to resist the king. Henry now had the assistance of his young son Edward, a strong, sensible prince, who from this time on

1 Innes, I, 130-134.

came to be the real force in the government. Simon de MontThe battle of fort led the baronial army against the royal forces Lewes. 1264. at Lewes in Sussex and gained a complete victory. Prince Edward was taken prisoner and for a year Simon was in control of the kingdom.

99. Simon de Montfort's Parliament. In attempting to reach a settlement with the king, Earl Simon made use of an institution that had been taking form since late in the reign of John, the parliament.1 A parliament was the old great counBeginnings of cil of prominent nobles with an added element of parliament. representative knights from the shires. Simon de Montfort did not originate parliament. As early as 1213, the year of John's reconciliation with the church, an attempt was made to consult the shires through their representatives. During the troubles between Henry III and the nobility, both sides had called in representatives from the counties to assist in the deliberations of the great council. As the members chosen were always knights, this additional element might be looked upon as a representation of the lesser nobility. In the local government of the shires the knights were the controlling element; and it was wise to seek the support of a class that was of such great influence and importance.

oughs. 1265.

Simon de Montfort added a new element, one that was distinctly non-baronial, in the burgesses or representatives from the organized towns called boroughs. The parliaRepresentation of the bor- ment of 1265 was packed with Simon's friends; it was to make his control absolutely sure that he summoned in the king's name representatives from such boroughs as he knew to be friendly to himself. It is not probable that he intended this arrangement to be permanent; but Edward, when he became king, acted on the precedent of 1265 and thus parliament came to be composed of three elements: the barons, including the chief officials of the church; two knights from each shire; and two burgesses, usually merchants, from each borough or city. Sixty years after de Mont1 Gardiner, 196, 201-202; Masterman, 54-55.

117

THE NATIONAL MOVEMENT IN THE CHURCH fort's time, the members from the counties and the boroughs began to sit as one body and the house of commons came into being. In the term "commons" there is no sug- The House of gestion of any lower or humbler class: the house

Commons.

of commons was the representation of the organized communi

A CHURCH COUNCIL

(1195?-1259).

ties, which were the shires and the bor

oughs. As the boroughs were far more numerous than the counties, the burgesses at once came to be the controlling force in the house.

Simon de Montfort's work of reform was not lasting. Prince Edward escaped from captivity and joined the Marchers on the Welsh Battle of Eve

At the battle sham.

1265.

border who were already in revolt. of Evesham the baronial insurgents were defeated, Simon de Montfort being among the slain.2

100. The National Movement in the Church. The opposition to foreign influences was also apparent in the church. During Henry's minority the papal legate took a prominent. part in the government, with the result that a great deal of jealousy was excited among the barons. When Opposition to he was finally withdrawn, Archbishop Langton papal legates. persuaded the pope to leave the post of legate vacant for a time. In 1237, a new legate appeared on the king's own invitation; his presence excited a great deal of open hostility, and when he came to Oxford he was mobbed by the students.

1 Masterman, 59-60. 2 Innes, I, 134-139; Kendall, No. 26; different accounts.

Grosseteste.

At this point there appears prominently in history an English churchman who from that time on for a period of more than twenty years led the English church in its opposition to foreign domination: Robert Grosseteste, bishop of the extensive diocese of Lincoln. Robert Grosseteste was an Englishman of the villein class, who by

sheer power of intellect and courageous devotion to study and research had gained a fame for scholarship and intellectual leadership that extended far beyond the limits of the island. He had studied at the universities of Oxford and Paris, was interested in the translation of Greek writings, and was a friend of Roger Bacon, the greatest scientist of the time. He had passed middle life before he was promoted to the bishopric of Lincoln; but he stepped almost immediately into Langton's place as a national leader of the English church.

1235.

Bishop Grosseteste was a firm believer in the rights of the