alliance with the German Protestants by the marriage of his sovereign to some Protestant princess. But Anne of Cleves, Anne of the chosen princess, did not please the king; and though a wedding ceremony was performed, the marriage was merely a nominal one. Cromwell's failure to secure an attractive queen doubtless hastened his downfall; but his Protestant leanings and his Protestant foreign policy Cromwell executed. were also largely responsible. In 1540 he was charged with treason; a bill of attainder was rushed through parliament and Cromwell was executed without trial. 226. Irish Affairs. During the last seven years of Henry's reign the interest shifts to affairs beyond the borders of England. One of the most troublesome problems was that of Ireland. Though the king of England was lord of Ireland, his The Irish Pale. authority was practically limited to the Pale, an English colony in and about Dublin. The Irish Pale had its own parliament; but it was virtually controlled by the English privy council, as the parliament of the Pale had agreed in what is known as Poynings' Law (1494) 2 to pass no act that the English council had not approved beforehand. Efforts to extend the control of the Dublin government were met with stubborn resistance. During the decade of the Reformation Parliament and the suppression of the monasteries, Ireland was in almost constant rebellion. These uprisings were put down, however, and in 1540, Henry VIII induced the Irish chiefs to recognize him as king of Ireland.3 The practical result of this was to extend the authority of the Irish parliament and the English privy council over all the island. Henry becomes king of Ireland. 227. Renewed War with Scotland: the Battle of Solway Moss. Trouble was also gathering across the Scotch borders. King James of Scotland was in close alliance with the Catholic bishops of his kingdom, and at their instigation he broke the peace with his aggressive English uncle. After ten years of hostility, open or threatened, war broke out in 1542. A 1 Review sec. 72. 2 Gardiner, 350-351. 3 Ibid., 404. THE REIGN OF HENRY VIII 253 Scotch army invaded northwestern England, only to be driven back with frightful slaughter at Solway Moss.1 War with The broken-hearted Scotch king dragged his weary the Scots. body back to the edge of the Highlands where he died a little later. The throne went to an infant daughter who was born a few days before her father's death, Mary Stuart. The birth of the Stuart princess awakened new aspirations in the English mind; a marriage was promptly proposed between Mary and Henry's son Edward, who was Mary Stuart. now about six years old. But the queen regent of Scotland, Mary of Guise, could not think of a union with a heretic dynasty and renewed the old alliance with France. England was thus involved in a new French war; some fighting occurred but without important results: when peace was made there was no mentionable gain for either side. 228. The Reign of Henry VIII: Course and Significance. In 1547 Henry VIII died after having held the English kingship for nearly thirty-eight years. The years were not kind to Henry: the fine, athletic young prince who rowed so well and danced so gracefully developed into a gross old Henry VIII king, so burdened with flesh that he was finally as king. unable to walk without assistance. As a king, however, he was remarkably successful: in every statute that was passed after the fall of Wolsey, evidence of the royal will is clearly seen. Circumstances were favorable for the revolt that the king led: still, the outcome proves that the royal leader possessed unusual abilities. Like his father he was grasping, shrewd, and calculating; like his grandfather Edward IV he was headstrong, unscrupulous, and cruel. In addition he had all the characteristics of the modern politician: no executive ever managed a parliament more successfully than did Henry VIII. His reign is chiefly important for the Protestant revolt that resulted in the secession of the Anglican church Achievement from Rome. For two years (1527-1529) the inter- of the reign. est lies in the king's suit at Rome and in England. 1 Innes, I, 306–310. Then follow Course of the three years of strained relations with the papacy, during which period the king endeavors with threats of hostile legislation to force the pope to decide in his favor. A step is taken toward the reduction of papal revenues by the Act of Annates. In the years 1533-1534 came the great statutes that destroyed the pope's authority in England and made Henry pope of the national church. During the following six years the king and his chief agent, Thomas Cromwell, attacked the monasteries and destroyed the entire monastic sysReformation. tem. At the same time Cranmer was introducing the English Bible into the churches. Thus three great steps. were taken in the direction of Continental Protestantism: the separation from Rome; the suppression of the monasteries; and the authorized use of the English Bible in the churches. The movement so far as Henry is concerned had run its course by 1539 and closed with the reaffirmation of Catholic doctrine in the Six Articles. It will be observed, however, that all these changes were authorized by parliamentary acts. There were only two bodies Legal character of the revolt from Rome. that could make any legal changes in the English church convocation and parliament. But convocation was a weak and spineless body; and after it had resigned its power to the king by the "submission of the clergy" (1532), parliament remained as the only power that could carry out a legal reform. When changes were made by royal decrees, the king acted by virtue of powers expressly granted by parliament. REFERENCES THE KING'S DIVORCE. · Creighton, Wolsey, c. ix; Fletcher, Introductory History of England, I, ii, 44-46; Innes, History of England, 274-278; Pollard, Cranmer; Pollard, Henry VIII, cc. vii-viii; Taunton, Wolsey, c. x. SEPARATION FROM ROME. Beard, Introduction to the English Historians, 255-263 (Dixon); Edwards, Story of Wales, 339-346; Fletcher, I, ii, 47-53; Gardiner, Student's History of England, 385-391; Innes, History of England, 278-284; Innes, Cranmer, 58-65; Oman, History of England, 293-298; Pollard, Cranmer, 69-78; Pollard, Henry VIII, cc. xi-xii; Ransome, Advanced History of England, 406-412. THE EXECUTIONS OF 1535. - Beard, 264-269 (Gairdner); Cross, History of England, 320-321; Pollard, Henry VIII, 331-334. SUPPRESSION OF THE MONASTERIES. Beard, 269-272 (Gairdner); Fletcher, I, ii, 55–64; Gasquet, Henry VIII and the Suppression of the Monasteries; Innes, Cranmer, 71-79; Pollard, Cranmer; Pollard, Henry VIII, 336-342; Ransome, 414-418; Tout, Advanced History of Great Britain, 341-345. 152. HENRY VIII AND IRELAND. - Johnston and Spencer, Ireland's Story, 150 THE LAST YEARS OF HENRY VIII. of England, 291-297; Tout, 346-351. Fletcher, I, ii, 67-73; Innes, History "WHAT ENGLAND OWES TO HENRY VIII."- Fletcher, I, ii, 73-84. CHAPTER XI THE PROTESTANT ADVANCE AND THE CATHOLIC REACTION 229. England in 1547. During the last eight years of Henry's reign no changes were made in the creed or constitution of the church. It remained Catholic in doctrine, in ritual, and in government. It is not to be inferred, however, that the English mind was quiet: the Protestant party was growing among the people; several of the newer bishops were inclined toward Protestantism, especially was this true of those chosen while Thomas Cromwell administered the temporal affairs of the church; and the primate himself was gradually coming to hold reformed views. But so long as Henry lived, the machinery of government was beyond the control of those who favored the Protestant system, and no legal changes could be made. When the masterful king was dead, however, the forces of the revolt could be held in check no longer. England took another long step away from the old standards. This was followed by a period of reaction during which almost the whole medieval system was under Mary. restored. Had the reaction been less complete, it might have succeeded; but after twenty years of Cranmer's system in the church the nation found it difficult to resume the old habits of obedience to Rome. Growth of Protestant opinion. Reaction 230. Edward Seymour, Protector of the Realm. During the decade of Edward's and Mary's reigns, three men successively guided the destinies of England: Edward Seymour, John Dudley, and Stephen Gardiner. Edward VI was a mere child of nine years when he ascended the throne, and he died before he reached mature manhood. Con The regency. |