gion are duly performed is in the small village of Maleyoor, of which Dhermia is one of the officiating priests.

The bramins relate with exultation the lacs of Jain who have been destroyed at different periods, in persecutions which appear to have been more sanguinary than any recorded in the western world: and the following brief notice of these persecutions is taken chiefly from the bramins, and from documents in the Mackenzie collection. The earliest persecutor of the Jain of whom I have received any distinct account, is Bhutt Acharya, who lived about or before the commencement of the Christian æra. This person had become the disciple of a Jain Gooroo for the express purpose of learning the philosophy of that sect (in which the bramins admit that they excelled), and thus defeating them with their own weapons. He betrayed what he found exceptionable in their doctrines; and after having excited against them the most active persecution, finally condemned himself to perish by a slow fire, as an expiation for the crime of having betrayed his Gooroo. In the act of sustaining this punishment at Hurdwar, where the Ganges enters Hindos tan, he was visited by the celebrated Sancara Acharya, a native of Kerala or Malabar. In the midst of his sufferings Bhutt Acharya instructed this apt disciple, and exhorted him to continue the holy work of persecution: an injunction which Sancara Acharya effectually observed in his travels through every part of India. The Jain religion however continued to flourish to the south,

to the extent of being professed by several dynasties of kings, among whom we may enumerate with some certainty a very ancient dynasty which ruled at or near Conjeveram before that part of Drauveda was conquered or colonized by the Chola dynasty, and assumed the name of Tondamundelum, from the name of the son of the Chola king who commanded the expedition; the Pandean ruling at Madura; and a branch of it in Canara; and the Hoisala or Bellals who ruled at Doorasummoder, now called the Hallabede, near the western range of the hills of Mysoor. In 1133 Ramanuja or Ramanjacharee, the famous Vishnavite reformer, flying from the persecution of a king of the Chola dynasty in Tanjore of the sect of Siva, who exacted a confession of faith from all his subjects, ascended to Mysoor, and converted to the Vishnavite religion the reigning king of the last mentioned dynasty, named Veera Narsa Bellal, who thenceforth assumed the name of Vishnoo Verdana; and it is to the persecution of this period that the bramins exultingly refer for the final extinction of the Jain, by the most extensive slaughter and unheard of torments, one of which was that of grinding them in an oilmill.

The relative antiquity of the Jain and the bramins cannot perhaps at present be decided: there is little room to doubt that they were originally the same, and the question would relate to the doctrine which each of them pretend to have preserved unpolluted. But it appears to me incontestable, that the distinction of doctrine and se

paration of sects had taken place beforethe expedition of Alexander. On asking Dhermia the reason of prefixing the popular term Sravana to the names of all their temples, he tells me that the word is a corruption of Sramana, the most usual term for the sect, or rather for the holy persons belonging to it; he enumerated six other distinctive terms which are indiscriminately applied to them, viz. Arhata, Digumbera, Jenna, Jaina, and Pramâna. It will not probably be questioned that the Sramana are the Sarmanes, Germanes, Samanes; and Pramana the Pramnæ of the ancient authors of the west. Strabo would seem to consider the Germanes and the Pramnæ as distinct sects; but both are said to be opponents of the Brachmanes, and the latter particularly to ridicule their study of astrology. It may be noticed as a confirmation of the distinction of doctrine at this period, that Philostratus and Pliny speak of the Brachmanes as worshipping the sun; but although some obscurity may be expected in the imperfect information of the ancients, I do not find this worship any where attributed to the Sarmanes or Pramnæ, who to this day hold it in abhorrence. The Zarmanochagas, noticed so much by ancient authors for having publicly destroyed himself at Athens, was probably a Jain. In a note on Strabo,lib. 15-1048, on this name, we are told that old manuscripts (Veteres libri) have two distinct words, Zarmanas and Chagas, and Dion Cassius names this person Zarmanes without any addition. Sramana-ganna, as Dhermia informs me, is the usualformof speech to indicate the sect of Jain.

PRESENT STATE OF EDUCATION

And Literature in Iceland,
BY HENRY HOLLAND, M. D.

From Sir George Steuart Mackenzie's Travels in Iceland.

In the Dissertation prefixed to this volume, an attempt has been made to explain the circumstances in which the literature of the Icelanders originated, and to trace its progress through the successive periods of the history of the island. It will be the object of this chapter to complete the view of Icelandic literature, by exhibiting the present state of mental cultivation among the people; their institutions for the promotion of learning; and the modes of education among different classes of the community. From the more minute description to which they lead, these circumstances could not with propriety form a part in the general history of the country; though, as a sequel to it, they may possibly be interesting to the reader.

The picture of the present state of literature in Iceland is much less imposing than that of its early conditionandgrowth. The changes however, which the lapse of time has effected, are rather relative, than absolute in their nature; and though the glory of the Icelanders is now for ever sunk, and their name almost lost among nations, yet in their own island they still keep alive much of that spirit of literary pursuit by which the character of their ancestors was so greatly distinguished. A few of the names which adorn the modern history of the country have already been mentioned. At the present time there are many indi

viduals living on this remote spot, and from their situation exposed to innumerable privations, whose talents and acquirements would grace the most refined circles of civilized society. The business of education is systematically carried on among all ranks of the inhabitants; and the degree of information existing, even among the lower classes, is probably greater than in almost any part of continental Europe.

This state of mental culture will appear more wonderful, when it is considered that the circumstances of the country do not allow of any extended scheme of public education, and that the transmission of knowledge can take place only through the private and domestic habits of the people. In the existence among the Icelanders of habits which are fitted to this end, we contemplate a feature which is justly entitled to admiration and

esteem.

At the present time, the school of Bessestad is actually the only establishment for education in Iceland. About the middle of the 16th century, when the reformation of religion took place in the island, two schools were founded; one at Skalholt, the other at Hoolum in the northern province; and a landed property was attached to these institutions, sufficient for the support of between twenty and thirty scholars at each place. Towards the close of the last century, the two schools were united into one, and transferred to Reikiavik, while in lieu of the school lands, which were appropriated by the crown, an annual sum from the public money was allotted to the support of the establishment. A

few years ago, the school was again transferred to its present situation at Bessestad; the building being vacant which was formerly the abode of the governors of Iceland. This edifice, though by no means in good repair, is from its size better adapted than any other in the country for the purposes to which it is now applied; and, but for the intervention of the war between England and Denmark, would have been further improved by the completion of some additional buildings, which are yet in an unfinished state.

The establishment at Bessestad consists at present of three masters, and twenty-three or twentyfour scholars; the funds of the school not allowing the reception of a greater number. The headmaster, or Lector Theologiæ, has an annual salary of 600 rix-dollars. It is his office to superintend the general concerns of the school, and to conduct more especially the theological department, and the study of the Hebrew language. At the time of our arrival in Iceland, the person who held this situation was Mr. Steingrim Jonson; a man apparently not more than thirty-five years of age, but possessed of talents and learning which well fitted him for the discharge of its important duties. For several years he was the pupil and secretary of the late Bishop Finsson at Skalliolt, after whose death he studied some time at Copenhagen, where, as a classical scholar, he acquired very great credit. His knowledge of the Greek and Hebrew languages is said to be accurate and extensive; and to theological studies he has given a very minute attention, being intimately

acquainted with the writings of the most eminent of the German theologians. This gentleman, during our stay in Iceland, was removed from Bessestad to thechurch of Oddè, in Rangaavallè Syssel, one of the most valuable livings in the island. He was succeeded by another person, of the same name, who is likewise reputed to be a man of learning and acquirements. The two inferior masters of the school have salaries of 300 rix-dollars each. The office of the second master comprehends the instruction of the scholars in Latin, his tory, geography, and arithmetic; while the third is occupied in teaching the Greek, Danish, and Icelandic languages. It is a singular circumstance in the regulations of the school, that each scholar, whether intended for the pastoral office or not, is obliged to study the elements of Hebrew, and to undergo some examination in this language. By far the greater number, however, of those who attend the school, are preparing themselves for this future situation in life; and in the admission of scholars, a preference is always given to the children of priests. A youth is not allowed to enter until he has been confirmed; and a certificate of his talents and disposition is required from the minister of the parish in which he has resided. The period of annual study extends from the beginning of October to the end of May; the summer being made the season of vacation, to accommodate the rural occupations, in which all ranks among the Icelanders are obliged to partake. It is a part of the office of the Bishop to visit the school at the commencement and

close of each session; and at the latter time, to superintend the examinations of the scholars, which then take place. These examinations continue during several days, with a prescribed form of proceed. ing, of which a sketch has already been given in the narrative.

After a certain degree of progress in the studies allotted to him, each scholar becomes what is term ed a demissus; leaving the school, and pursuing his future studies at home. No particular period is fixed for a demission. This is determined solely by the proficiency of the student, as ascertained by an examination; for which it is required that he should be able to read and write Latin with accuracy, that he should have some :nowledge of Greek and Hebrew, and of the rules for interpreting the Old and New Testaments; and that he should be acquainted with the Danish language, with history, arithmetic, and geography. The knowledge of Greek and Hebrew, though officially required, is, however, in the practice of these examinations, by no means very rigorously exacted. Where the students are preparing for the priesthood, asis generally the case, they are farther questioned upon the Bible and ecclesiastical history, upon the doctrines of the Lutheran church, &c. If a youth has continued seven years without attaining the qualifications which entitle him to become a demissus, the Lector writes to his family, representing the matter to them, and he is not allowed to remain longer at the school,

A library is attached to the establishment at Bessestad, containing probably twelve or fourteen hun

dred volumes, among which are a few good editions of the classics. The greater part of the library consists of Icelandic and Danish works; beside which there are a considerable number of volumes in the German language, and a few in the English and French. The number of manuscripts is very inconsider able, and they appear to be of little value. The private library of the Lector Theologiæ, though smaller, is more select, and contains the works of Mosheim, Heinsius, Reinhard, Lowth, Griesbach, Michaelis, and numerous other authors of minor note, on ecclesiastical history and doctrine. It is the best theological collection in the island.

Among the young men educated at this school, there are some who afterwards go to Copenhagen, with the view of prosecuting their studies at the university there; this advantage being occasionally afforded to the children of those who hold civil offices, or possess landed property, and to the sons of some of the wealthier among the clergy ofthe country. The number of students, however, who enjoy such opportunities is very limited; and the remainder, oppressed by poverty and the necessities of their situation, are generally compelled to take up their abode for life in solitary spots, where their intercourse, even with each other, is almost wholly suspended, and where any future progress in knowledge can only be effected by their independent and unaided exertions. This is the condition of all the country priests in the island, and of many of the more respectable of the proprietors and farmers. Deprived, as they thus ap

pear to be, both of the means and motives for mental cultivation, it could scarcely be expected that instances should occur, where the ardour of literary pursuit is still maintained, and the acquisitions of former study not only preserved, but even increased and improved. The occurrence, however, and even the frequency of examples of this kind, may render necessary some explanation of a fact so extraordinary. Among the more obvious of the causes which present themselves, is the long period of leisure which the Icelanders enjoy, during the protracted winters of their northern region. This leisure, those who have acquired in their youth the habits of literary pursuit, will naturally devote to a continuance in occupations, which are so well adapted to relieve the weariness of the passing time. Their means of study are indeed very limited, and the enjoyments of participation almost wholly denied; but these comparative disadvantages are in some measure overcome by the habits of perseverance, which necessity creates, and which are maintained from an experimental sense of their value. Nor is the great name of their ancestors without its influence upon the present generation of Icelanders. There are few amongst them who cannot refer back to the times, when those born on the same soil with themselves, were raised to honours and renown in foreign lands: and never is this appeal made without an animated feeling of patriotic pride and satisfaction.

Among the class of priests, another motive to mental cultivation is the desire of maintaining in their